ME 421- THERMAL SYSTEMS AND

APPLICATIONS
LESSON 2: INTRODUCTION TO ENTROPY

ALHASSAN SULLAIMAN (MPhil. Mechanical Engineering)

Wednesday, January 16, 2019
 ENTROPY
• The second law leads to the definition of a new property called entropy.

• Entropy is a quantitative measure of microscopic disorder for a system.

• Entropy is a measure of energy that is no longer available to perform

useful work within the current environment.

• Clausius inequality is used to obtain the working definition of entropy

Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that heat into work. The
increase in entropy is small when heat is added at a high temperature and is greater when heat addition is made at
lower temperature. Thus for maximum entropy, there is a minimum availability for conversion into work and for
minimum entropy there is maximum availability for conversion into work.
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 ENTROPY-CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

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 ENTROPY-CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
• Clausius Inequality:
This inequality is used to check that any cycle (engine or refrigerator)
violates the second law of thermodynamic or not.
• Consider a reversible power cycle (heat engines shown in Fig 5.1):

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 ENTROPY
• Any Property Whose Cyclic Integral is Zero is a Property. This Makes
Entropy a Property.
• Clausius in 1865 realized that he discovered a new property and he
called it entropy:

The entropy change of a system during a process can be calculated:

To perform this integral, one needs to know the relation between Q and T during the process.

Note that the cyclic integral of δQ / T will give us the entropy change only if the integration carried out along an
internally reversible path between two states.

For irreversible processes, we may imagine a reversible process between the two states (initial and final) and calculate
the entropy change (since entropy is a property).
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 EXAMPLE 1
A heat engine receives 600 KJ heat from a high-temperature source at
1000 K during a cycle. It converts 150 KJ of this heat to net work and
rejects the remaining 450 KJ to a low temperature sink at 300 K.
Determine if this cyclic process violates the laws of thermodynamics on
the basis
(a) the Clausius inequality and (b) the Carnot principle

Again, this heat engine is in complete compliance with the second law
of thermodynamics since

Note that a cycle that violates the Clausius inequality will also violate
Since the cyclic satisfied the Clausius inequality
the Carnot principle.
and thus the second law of thermodynamics.
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 THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
• Entropy change of a closed system during an irreversible process is
greater that the integral of δQ / T evaluated for the process. In the
limiting case of a reversible process, they become equal.

The entropy generated during a process is called entropy generation, and is denoted by Sgen,

Note that the entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero (reversible process). Its value depends on the
process, thus it is not a property of a system.

• The entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases, or in the limiting case of a reversible process remains
constant (it never decreases). This is known as the increase of entropy principle.
• The entropy change of a system or its surroundings can be negative; but entropy generation cannot.

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 REMARKS ON INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
1‐ A process must proceed in the direction that complies with the increase of
entropy principle, Sgen > 0. A process that violates this principle is impossible.
2‐ Entropy is a non‐conserved property, and there is no such thing as the
conservation of entropy. Therefore, the entropy of universe is continuously
increasing.
3‐ The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of
irreversibility. The entropy generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the
irreversibilities present during the process.

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 ENTROPY BALANCE
• Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder or randomness of a system,
and the second law states that entropy can be created but it cannot be
destroyed.
• The increase of entropy principle is expressed as

This is referred to as the entropy balance

Entropy change
Therefore, the entropy change of a system is zero if the state of the system does not
change during the process. For example entropy change of steady flow devices such as
nozzles, compressors, turbines, pumps, and heat exchangers is zero during steady
operation
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 MECHANISM OF ENTROPY TRANSFER
Mass Flow: mass contains entropy as well as energy, both entropy and energy contents of a system are
proportional to the mass. When a mass in the amount of m enters or leaves a system, entropy in the amount
of ms (s is the specific entropy) accompanies it.

Heat Transfer: heat is a form of disorganized energy and some disorganization (entropy)
will flow with heat. Heat rejection is the only way that the entropy of a fixed mass can be
decreased.

The ratio of the heat transfer Q/ T (absolute temperature) at a location is

Called entropy transfer.

Note that work is entropy‐free, and no entropy is transferred with work.

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 ENTROPY BALANCE FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM
Entropy change of the system = Entropy transfer with heat + Entropy generation

Therefore, for an adiabatic closed system, we have:

For an internally reversible adiabatic process ΔS = 0, because S gen= 0.

The total entropy generated during a process can be determined by applying the entropy
balance to an extended system that includes both the system and its immediate
surroundings where external irreversibility might be occurring.
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 ENTROPY BALANCE FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
• In addition to methods discussed for closed system, the entropy can be
exchanged through mass flows across the boundaries of the control volume.

For a steady‐state steady‐flow process, it simplifies to:

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 More Remarks
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. As a
system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less predictable
and the entropy increases.

At absolute zero (0 K), molecules become completely motionless, this represents a state of
ultimate molecular order.

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 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Therefore, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at zero temperature is
zero. Since there is no uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that
instant.

• This statement is the third law of thermodynamics. Since there is a reference

for entropy (absolute zero), entropy is an absolute property.
• The entropy measured with respect to absolute zero is called absolute entropy.

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 Second law diagrams
The two diagrams used most extensively in the second‐law analysis are the T ‐s and h ‐s diagrams

Isentropic process (s2 = s1) = Reversible + Adiabatic

For an internally reversible process, one can write: For adiabatic steady‐flow devices, the vertical
distance h on an h‐s diagram is a measure of
work, and the horizontal distance s is a
measure of irreversibilities
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 The steady-flow devices deliver the highest work
(such as turbines ) and consumes the minimum work
(such as compressors and pumps ) when the process
is reversible and adiabatic.
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 REVERSIBLE FLOW WORK
The work done during a steady-
flow process is proportional to
the specific volume. Therefore, v
should be kept as small as
possible during a compression
process to minimize the work
input and as large as possible
during an expansion process to
maximize the work output.

For incompressible substances (v = constant) steady flow work for a reversible process simplifies to

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 EVALUATION OF ENTROPY CHANGE
The differential form of the conservation of energy for a closed system (fixed mass) for an
internally reversible process is:

Where; First Gibbs equation

From the definition of entropy,

Second Gibbs equation

Explicit relations for differential changes in entropy can be obtained from Gibbs equations
To calculate the entropy change, we must
know the relationship between du or dh and
temperature.
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 ENTROPY CHANGE FOR VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
ENTROPY CHANGE FOR PURE SUBSTANCES

For isentropic process

S2 = S1

The entropy of a pure substance such as water and refrigerant

R134a is determined from the tables (like other properties).

Schematic of the T-s diagram for water.

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 ENTROPY CHANGE FOR SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Solids and liquids can be assumed as incompressible substances since their volumes remains
essentially constant during a process. Thus, the first Gibbs equation becomes:

Assuming an averaged value for specific heat, one obtains:

Note that the entropy change of an incompressible substance is only a function

of temperature. Therefore, for an isentropic process where s2 = s1, one can
find:
T2 = T1

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 ENTROPY CHANGE FOR IDEAL GASES
The entropy change of an ideal gas can be obtained, by substituting du = cv dT and P = RT/v into Gibbs equation.

For isentropic processes of ideal gases, the following

relationships can be found by setting ds = 0,
ISENTROPIC PROCESS

Assuming averaged values for specific heats, one obtains:

Since R = cp – cv, k = cp / cv, and thus R / cv = k – 1.

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 NOTE
Please read more on the isentropic processes of ideal
gas using Variable specific heat (Exact Analysis) and
the Relative pressure and relative specific volume
methods.

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 Review concept questions

1. Does the cyclic integral of heat have to be zero (i.e., does a system have
to reject as much heat as it receives to complete a cycle)? Explain.

2. Is a quantity whose cyclic integral is zero necessarily a property?

3. The entropy of a hot baked potato decreases as it cools. Is this a violation of

the increase of entropy principle? Explain?

4. Work isentropy free, and sometimes the claim is made that work will not
change the entropy of a fluid passing through an adiabatic steady flow system
with a single inlet and outlet. Is this a valid claim?

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