Computer Networks

Lecture 02
Outline
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-2
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-3
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

 wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-4
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

 wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter

Network core:
network

 interconnected routers
 network of networks enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-5
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end systems mobile network

to edge router?
national or global ISP

 residential access nets

 institutional access networks (school,
company)
local or
 mobile access networks (WiFi, 4G/5G) regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-6
Access networks: cable-based access
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing (FDM): different channels transmitted in

different frequency bands
Introduction: 1-7
Access networks: cable-based access
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• asymmetric: up to 40 Mbps – 1.2 Gbps downstream transmission rate, 30-100 Mbps
upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
• homes share access network to cable headend
Introduction: 1-8
Access networks: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

voice, data transmitted ISP

at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 24-52 Mbps dedicated downstream transmission rate
 3.5-16 Mbps dedicated upstream transmission rate
Introduction: 1-9
Access networks: home networks
Wireless and wired
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

WiFi wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54, 450 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)
Introduction: 1-10
Wireless access networks
Shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

Wireless local area networks Wide-area cellular access networks

(WLANs)  provided by mobile, cellular network
 typically within or around operator (10’s km)
building (~100 ft)  10’s Mbps
 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450  4G/5G cellular networks
Mbps transmission rate

to Internet
to Internet
Introduction: 1-11
Access networks: enterprise networks

Enterprise link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Ethernet institutional mail,
switch web servers

 companies, universities, etc.

 mix of wired, wireless link technologies, connecting a mix of switches
and routers (we’ll cover differences shortly)
 Ethernet: wired access at 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps
 WiFi: wireless access points at 11, 54, 450 Mbps
Introduction: 1-12
 Access networks: data center networks
mobile network
 high-bandwidth links (10s to 100s Gbps) national or global ISP
connect hundreds to thousands of
servers together, and to Internet

local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

Courtesy: Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing enterprise

Center (mghpcc.org) network

Introduction: 1-13
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller chunks, known two packets,
as packets, of length L bits L bits each
 transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate R 2 1

• link transmission rate, aka link host

capacity, aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction: 1-14
Links: physical media
 bit: propagates between Twisted pair (TP)
transmitter/receiver pairs  two insulated copper wires
 physical link: what lies • Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps Ethernet
between transmitter & • Category 6: 10Gbps Ethernet
receiver
 guided media:
• signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
• signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio
Introduction: 1-15
Links: physical media
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper conductors  glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband: • high-speed point-to-point
• multiple frequency channels on cable transmission (10’s-100’s Gbps)
• 100’s Mbps per channel  low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction: 1-16
Links: physical media
Wireless radio Radio link types:
 signal carried in various  Wireless LAN (WiFi)
“bands” in electromagnetic • 10-100’s Mbps; 10’s of meters
spectrum  wide-area (e.g., 4G/5G cellular)
 no physical “wire” • 10’s Mbps (4G) over ~10 Km
 broadcast, “half-duplex” (sender  Bluetooth: cable replacement
to receiver) • short distances, limited rates
 propagation environment  terrestrial microwave
effects: • point-to-point; 45 Mbps channels
• reflection  satellite
• obstruction by objects • up to < 100 Mbps (Starlink) downlink
• Interference/noise • 270 msec end-end delay (geostationary)
Introduction: 1-17
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-18
The network core
 mesh of interconnected routers mobile network
national or global ISP
 packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into packets
• network forwards packets from one
router to the next, across links on local or
path from source to destination regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-19
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

 global action:
Forwarding: local forwarding table
header value output link determine source-
 aka “switching” 0100
0101
3
2 destination paths
 local action: 0111
1001
2
1 taken by packets
move arriving  routing algorithms
packets from
1
router’s input link
to appropriate 3 2
router output link 011
1

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-20
routing

Introduction: 1-21
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-22
 Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps  L = 10 Kbits
 store and forward: entire packet must arrive at  R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link  one-hop transmission delay
= 0.1 msec

Introduction: 1-23
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-24
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
 packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
Introduction: 1-25
How do packet delay and loss occur?
 packets queue in router buffers, waiting for turn for transmission
 queue length grows when arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
 packet loss occurs when memory to hold queued packets fills up
packet being transmitted (transmission delay)

B
packets in buffers (queueing delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction: 1-26
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link for
 determine output link transmission
 typically < microsecs  depends on congestion level of
router
Introduction: 1-27
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:
 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link transmission rate (bps)  s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R  dprop = d/s
dtrans and dprop
very different Introduction: 1-28