Uludag University English Language Teaching Department
Uludag University English Language Teaching Department
Uludag University English Language Teaching Department
AYLİN AYDIN
ADNAN ERKUT
COŞKUN ŞEREF ŞEN
WHAT IS
GRAMMAR?
Example: the word cats has two morphemes. Cat is a morpheme, and s is a
morpheme.
SYNTAX
Syntax is the order in which you place words, to make a sentence either sound
good or convey a certain meaning.
While morphology looks at how the smallest linguistic unit (called morphemes)
are formed into complete words, syntax looks at how those words are formed into
complete sentences.
"To your house we are going" would be an example of awkward syntax. You
understand it, but it sounds odd. People who are learning a language might have
problems with syntax.
• Writers orientate more towards norms, speakers orient towards each other
• Writing is more off-line and not time bound; speech is more online and in
real time
Ellipsis means to leave out the words without destroying the meaning.
It simply means ‘’ommission’’.
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to
that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and
fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge.
Language Corpora: The term language corpus is used to mean a number of rather
different things. It may refer simply to any collection of linguistic data (written,
spoken, or a mixture of the two), generally to characterize a particular state or
variety of one or more languages.
For instance, the word ‘’table’’ means a thing with legs which we can
write on
and eat off.
So, the same collecation of sounds and letters can have many different meanings.
It is called POLYSEMY .
ANTONYM
Antonym is the opposite meaning of the word.
SYNONYM
Synonyms are words that mean the same as another word.
Example: a synonym for lazy is slothful.
For example, boar and piglet are also hyponyms of the subordinate pig,
since the meaning of each of the three words sow, boar, and piglet
'contains' the meaning of the word pig.
SUPERORDINATE
a word the meaning of which includes the meaning of another word or
words ``red'' is a superordinate of ``scarlet'', ``vermilion'', and ``crimson''
CONNOTATION
For example, "slim" and "scrawny" both mean that a person is thin. "Slim,"
though, has a positive connotation -- it makes you think of an attractive person,
while "scrawny" has a negative connotation -- it makes you think of a
malnourished or impoverished person.
EXTENDING WORD USE
Words do not just have different meanings. They can also be stretced
and twisted to fit different contexts and different uses. We say that
someone is in a black mood or someone is yellow, yet we are not
actually describing a colour. In such contexts black and yellow mean
something else.
METAPHOR
It is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one
thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison
CLICHE
A cliche is a phrase, expression or idea that has been overworked.
Something that is trite, stereotyped or hackneyed.
Example:
The words we use and what they actually mean in the context we use
them are not the same thing at all. We choose words and phrases to
have different effects from the surface meanings they appear to
express, and we do this on the basis of a number of variables:
purpose, appropriacy, language in discourse, and genre.
1. PURPOSE
Genre is the term for any category of literature or other forms of art
or culture, e.g. music, and in general, any type of discourse, whether
written or spoken, audial or visual, based on some set of stylistic
criteria. Genres are formed by conventions that change over time as
new genres are invented and the use of old ones are discontinued.
Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and
recombining these conventions.
The sounds of the language:
To sum up the sounds of the language; Sounds are what language comes wrapped
in. But not all sounds made by people are language. For example, a person can't say
a sneeze. Or a burp. Burps and sneezes are sounds he can't usually help. The sounds
of language are those a person wants to make. They are sounds that carry a
message.
Pitch:
The pitch of a sound is also known as its frequency. When the frequency is high, the
wavelength of the sound is shorter. Moreover we recognise people by the pitch of
their voice. For instance; one person has a very high voice whereas another one has a
deep voice.
Intonation :
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say. Without
intonation, it's impossible to understand the expressions and thoughts that
go with words. Listen to somebody speaking without paying attention to the
words: the 'melody' you hear is the intonation. Intonation is also used to
convey emotion, involvement, and empathy.
Individual sounds:
As words and sentences may not carry meaning on their on, both are made up of
Phonemes. The phonemes are just sounds, but put them together in a certain order
And we get a word that is instantly recognisable.
If we change just one of these sounds we will get a different word.
we make these sounds by using various parts of the mouth such as the lips,
The tongue, the teeth, the ridge, the palate, the velum, and vocal cords.
Sounds and spelling:
It's important to note that the spelling of a word is not always an accurate guide
to how it is pronounced. Similarly the pronunciation of a word is not always
helpful when working out how that word should be spelt.
There are 26 letters in the English alphabet but there are many more sounds
in the English language. This means that the number of sounds in a word is not
always the same as the number of letters.
For example, the word 'CAT' has three letters and three sounds but the
word 'CATCH' has five letters but still only three sounds.
Stress:
Stress is the term we use to describe the point in a word or phrase where pitch
changes,
Vowels lenghten, and volume increases.
In multisyllable words there is often more than one stressed syllable such as
singularity, information, claustrophobia. In such cases we call the strongest force
the primary stress and weaker force the secondary stress.
In short Stress is vitally important in conveying meaning in phrases and
sentences.
Paralinguistic features of language:The simplest definition of paralinguistic
features is that they are those features of the spoken language found outside the actual
sounds being made. Some of the common paralinguistic features are facial expressions,
head movements, hand gestures, eye movements, and eye gaze.
It refers to the way in which we use our bodies, and by doing that we can convey a
number of meanings.
For example; we may send powerful messages about how we feel or what we
mean by the expression on our face, gestures we make, and even proximity or the way
we sit.
• Proximity refers to the physical distance between speakers. This can indicate a
number of things and can also be used to consciously send messages about intent.
Closeness, for example, indicates intimacy or threat to many speakers. But distance
may show formality, or lack of interest.
• Posture means the way in which someone holds his or her body, especially the
back, shoulders and head, when standing, walking or sitting. A few examples.
Hunched shoulders and a hanging head give a powerful indication of whether the
person is happy or not.