These slides are mainly taken from the

following website with some

modifications.

Website:
https://sites.chemengr.ucsb.edu/~ceweb/faculty/seborg/teaching/slides.html

University of California, Santa Barbara

Department of Chemical Engineering
1
 Feedback Control System
A feedback control system is a control system that tends to maintain a
prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing
functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control.
Chapter 8

Which one is the feedback control system?

2
 Feedback Control System
Chapter 8

Figure: Closed-loop feedback system with external disturbances and measurement noise

3
 Feedback Control System
A closed-loop feedback control has the following advantages:
Improved rejection of the disturbances.
Chapter 8

Improved measurement noise attenuation,

Improved reduction of the steady-state error of the system.
Easy control and adjustment of the transient response of the
system.
Decreased sensitivity of the system to variations in the
parameters of the process.

What are the problems associated with it?

4
 Feedback Control System
A closed-loop feedback control has the following advantages:
Improved rejection of the disturbances.
Chapter 8

Improved measurement noise attenuation,

Improved reduction of the steady-state error of the system.
Easy control and adjustment of the transient response of the
system.
Decreased sensitivity of the system to variations in the
parameters of the process.

What are the problems associated with it?

Cost and Increased system complexity 5
 Feedback Controllers
Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram for a stirred-tank blending

system. 6
 Feedback Controllers

What is the control objective?

Chapter 8

The control objective is to keep the tank exit composition x at

the desired value (set point) by adjusting w2, the flow rate of
pure species A, via control valve.

7
 Feedback Controllers
Chapter 8

Figure: Flow control system.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a feedback controller.

8
 Basic Control Modes
Next, we consider the three basic control modes starting with
the simplest mode, proportional control.

Proportional Control
Chapter 8

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to

zero where
e t   ysp t   ym t  (8-1)
and
e t   error signal
ysp t   set point
ym t   measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from the sensor/transmitter)

9
 Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying,
in many process control problems it is kept constant for long
periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to
the error signal,
Chapter 8

p t   p  K c e t  (8-2)

where:

p t   controller output
p  bias (steady-state) value
K c  controller gain (usually dimensionless)

10
 Chapter 8

11
 The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:

1. The controller gain can be adjusted to make the controller

output changes as sensitive as desired to deviations between
set point and controlled variable;
2. the sign of Kc can be chosed to make the controller output
Chapter 8

increase (or decrease) as the error signal increases.

For proportional controllers, bias p can be adjusted, a procedure

referred to as manual reset.
Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a
controller gain. The proportional band PB (in %) is defined as

100%
PB  (8-3)
Kc

12
 In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal proportional
controller (without saturation limits), define a deviation variable
pt  as
pt   p t   p (8-4)

Then Eq. 8-2 can be written as

Chapter 8

pt  K c e t  (8-5)

The transfer function for proportional-only control:

Ps 
K c (8-6)
E s 

An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is that a

steady-state error occurs after a set-point change or a sustained
disturbance.

13
 Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the
integral of the error signal over time,
1 t
p t   p  0 e t *dt * (8-7)
τI
Chapter 8

where τ I , an adjustable parameter referred to as the integral time

or reset time, has units of time.

Integral control action is widely used because it provides an

important practical advantage, the elimination of offset.
Consequently, integral control action is normally used in
conjunction with proportional control as the proportional-
integral (PI) controller:
 1 t 
p t   p  K c  e t   e t * dt *  (8-8)
 τI 0  14
 The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in
Eq. 8-8 is given by

Ps   1   τ I s 1 
K c  1   K c   (8-9)
E s   τ s
I   I τ s
Chapter 8

Some commercial controllers are calibrated in terms of 1/ τ I

(repeats per minute) rather than τ I (minutes, or minutes per
repeat). The shorter the integral time, the stronger the correction
is of the integral action.
When t = , the integral term has contributed the same amount
to the controller output as the proportional term. Thus, the
integral action has repeated the proportional action once.
Disadvantages of integral action:
Oscillatory responses of the controlled variable, sluggish
response. 15
 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control

 1
t

p( t ) p  K c  e( t )  e( t )dt 
 
 I 0 

• Response to unit step change in e:

Chapter 8

Figure 8.6. Response of proportional-integral controller to

unit step change in e(t).
16
 Reset Windup
• An inherent disadvantage of integral control action is a
phenomenon known as reset windup or integral windup.
• Recall that the integral mode causes the controller output to
change as long as e(t*) ≠ 0 in Eq. 8-8.
Chapter 8

• When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes

quite large, and the controller output eventually saturates.
• Further buildup of the integral term while the controller is
saturated is referred to as reset windup or integral windup.
• Reset windup occurs in PI and PID controller during a
sustained error for example during start-up of a batch process
or after a large set-point change. It can also occur when a large
sustained disturbance that is beyond the range of manipulated
variable.
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 • Integral action eliminates steady-state error
(i.e., offset) Why??? e  0  p is changing with
time until e = 0, where p reaches steady state.
• Transfer function for PI control P(s)  1 
K c  1  
E(s)   Is 
Chapter 8

ysp

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 Derivative Control
The function of derivative control action is to anticipate the future
behavior of the error signal by considering its rate of change.
• The anticipatory strategy used by the experienced operator can
be incorporated in automatic controllers by making the
Chapter 8

controller output proportional to the rate of change of the error

signal or the controlled variable.

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 • Thus, for ideal derivative action,

de t 
p t   p  τ D (8-10)
dt
where τ D , the derivative time, has units of time.
For example, an ideal PD controller has the transfer function:
Chapter 8

Ps 
K c 1  τ D s  (8-11)
E s 

• By providing anticipatory control action, the derivative mode

tends to stabilize the controlled process.
• Unfortunately, the ideal proportional-derivative control
algorithm in Eq. 8-11 is physically unrealizable because it
cannot be implemented exactly.
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 • For analog controllers, the transfer function in (8-11) can be
approximated by

Ps   τDs 
K c  1   (8-12)
E s   ατ D s  1 
Chapter 8

where the constant α typically has a value between 0.05 and

0.2, with 0.1 being a common choice.
• In Eq. 8-12 the derivative term includes a derivative mode
filter (also called a derivative filter) that reduces the sensitivity
of the control calculations to high-frequency noise in the
measurement.

21
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
• Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Chapter 8

Parallel Form of PID Control

The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by

 1 t de t  
p t   p  K c  e t   0 e t * dt * τ D dt  (8-13)
 τI

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 The corresponding transfer function is:

Ps   1 
K c  1   τDs (8-14)
E s   τI s 

Series Form of PID Control

Chapter 8

Historically, it was convenient to construct early analog

controllers (both electronic and pneumatic) so that a PI element
and a PD element operated in series.
Commercial versions of the series-form controller have a
derivative filter that is applied to either the derivative term, as in
Eq. 8-12, or to the PD term, as in Eq. 8-15:

Ps   τ I s 1   τ D s 1 
K c    (8-15)
E s  τ
 I  Ds ατ s  1 
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 Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
t de t 
p t   p  K c e t   K I e t * dt *  K D (8-16)
0 dt
Chapter 8

Features of PID Controllers

Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick
• One disadvantage of the previous PID controllers is that a
sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause
the derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus
provide a derivative kick to the final control element.

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 • This sudden change is undesirable and can be avoided by basing
the derivative action on the measurement, ym, rather than on the
error signal, e.
• We illustrate the elimination of derivative kick by considering
the parallel form of PID control in Eq. 8-13.
Chapter 8

• Replacing de/dt by –dym/dt gives

 1 t dym t  
p t   p  K c  e t   0 e t * dt *  τ D dt  (8-17)
 τI

Reverse or Direct Action

• The controller gain can be made either negative or positive.

25
 • For proportional control, when Kc > 0, the controller output p(t)
increases as its input signal ym(t) decreases, as can be seen by
combining Eqs. 8-2 and 8-1:
p t   p K c  ysp t   ym t  (8-22)

• This controller is an example of a reverse-acting controller.

Chapter 8

• When Kc < 0, the controller is said to be direct acting because

the controller output increases as the input increases.
• Equations 8-2 through 8-16 describe how controllers perform
during the automatic mode of operation.
• However, in certain situations the plant operator may decide to
override the automatic mode and adjust the controller output
manually.

26
 Figure 8.11 Reverse
Chapter 8

and direct-acting
proportional
controllers. (a) reverse
acting (Kc > 0. (b)
direct acting (Kc < 0)

27
 Automatic and Manual Control Modes
• Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
Chapter 8

 Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
 Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
• Percentage of controllers "on manual” ??
(30% in 2001, Honeywell survey)

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 Controller Comparison

P - Simplest controller to tune (Kc).

- Offset with sustained disturbance or setpoint
Chapter 8

change.
PI - More complicated to tune (Kc, I) .
- Better performance than P
- No offset
- Most popular FB controller
PID - Most complicated to tune (Kc, I, D) .
- Better performance than PI
- No offset
- Derivative action may be affected by noise

29
 Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
the disturbance variable)
Chapter 8

Figure 8.12. Typical process responses with feedback control.

30
 Figure 8.13.
Proportional control:
effect of controller
gain.
Chapter 8

Figure 8.15. PID

control: effect of
derivative time.

31
Chapter 8

Figure 8.14. PI control: (a) effect of reset time (b) effect of

controller gain.

32
 Chapter 8

33
 Example: Liquid Level Control
• Control valves are air-to-open
• Level transmitters are direct acting
Chapter 8

Questions: 1. Type of controller action?

2. What type of fish? 34
 On-Off Controllers

• Simple
• Cheap
Chapter 8

• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators

• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.

35
 On-Off Controllers (continued)
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
Chapter 8

Controller output has two possible values.

36
 Practical case (dead band)
Chapter 8

37
  Some controllers are calibrated in 1/I
("repeats per minute") instead of I .
 For PI controllers, p is not adjustable.
Chapter 8

Derivative Control Action

 Ideal derivative action
de
p ( t ) p   D
dt
 Used to improve dynamic response of the
controlled variable
 Derivative kick (use db/dt )
 Use alone?

38
 PID Controller
 Ideal controller

• Transfer function (ideal)

 1
t
de 
Chapter 8

p( t ) p  K c  e( t )  e( t )dt    D 
 I 0 dt 
P(s)  1 
K c  1    Ds 
E(s)   Is 
 Transfer function (actual)
P(s)   Is  1    Ds  1 
K c    
E(s)   Is    Ds  1 
α = small number (0.05 to 0.20) lead / lag units

39