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7 - Discrete Mathematics

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18 views36 pages

7 - Discrete Mathematics

Uploaded by

M Tegar S
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Discrete Mathematics

Proof Methods and Strategy


What is a Proof?
What is Mathematical Proof?
Methods of Mathematical Proof
Introduction to Number Theory
Properties of Proof
Proof Methods
1) Direct Proof
Proof statement : pq

by:

Assume p
From p derive q.
1) Direct Proof (Example)
1) Direct Proof (Example)
• Show that even + odd = odd
1) Direct Proof (Practice
Example)

Show that even + even = even?


Solution
By definition, an even number can be expressed as:
a = 2k
b = 2m
where "k" and "m" are integers. Now, let's calculate the sum of these two
even numbers:
a + b = 2k + 2m
We can factor out a 2 from both terms:
a + b = 2(k + m)
So we have:
a + b = 2n
Hence, the sum of two even numbers is even.
2) Proof by Contraposition
• Proof of a statement pq

• Use the equivalence to the contrapositive:


¬q  ¬ p

• So, try: from ¬q derive ¬ p (i.e. via direct proof).


2) Proof by Contraposition
(Example)
Theorem
For n integer ,
if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

I.e. For n integer,


3n + 2 is odd  n is odd

Proof by Contraposition:
Let p --- “3n + 2” is odd; q --- “n is odd”; we want to show that p  q
• The contraposition of our theorem is ¬q  ¬p
n is even  3n + 2 is even
• Now we can use a direct proof
• Assume ¬q , i.e, n is even therefore n = 2 k for some k
• Therefore 3 n + 2 = 3 (2k) + 2 = 6 k + 2 = 2 (3k + 1) which is even.
2) Proof by Contraposition
(Practice Example)
3) Proof by Contradiction
A – We want to prove p.
We show that:
(1) ¬p  F (i.e., ¬p leads to a False statement or contradiction,
say r ¬r)
(2) We conclude that ¬p is false since (1) is True,
and therefore p is True.

B – We want to show p  q
(2) Assume the negation of the conclusion, i.e., ¬q
(3) Use show that (p  ¬q)  F (i.e., (p  ¬q) leads to a False statement
or contradiction)
(3) Since ((p  ¬q )  F)  (p  q)
Example 1: Proof by Contradiction

Example: Hmm. We will assume “not Hot” ≡ “Cold”


Rainy days make gardens grow.
Gardens don’t grow if it is not hot. Let
When it is cold outside, it rains. R – Rainy day
Prove that it’s hot. G – Garden grows
H – It is hot
Given: RG
H  G
H  R
Show: H

((R  G)  (H  G)  (H  R))  H


?
18
Aside: we assume it’s either Hot or it is not Hot.
Called the “law of excluded middle”. In certain complex
arguments, it’s not so obvious. (hmm…) This led to
“constructive mathematics” and “intuitionistic
Given: RG mathematics”.
H  G
H  R
Show: H

1. R  G Given (“if it rains, plants grow”)


2. H  G Given (“if it’s cold, plants don’t
grow”)
3. H  R Given (“if it’s cold, it rains”)
4. H assume the contrary
5. R MP (3,4)
6. G MP (1,5)
7. G MP (2,4)
8. G  G contradiction! (so, our
assumption must be wrong.
H 19
Proof by Contradiction: Example

Theorem “If 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd”

Let p = “3n+2 is odd” and q = “n is odd”

1 – Assume p and ¬q i.e., 3n+2 is odd and n is not odd.


2 – Because n is not odd, it is even.
3 – If n is even, n = 2k for some k, and therefore 3n+2 = 3 (2k) + 2 =
2 (3k + 1), which is even.
4 – So, we have a contradiction, 3n+2 is odd and 3n+2 is even.

Therefore, we conclude p  q, i.e., “If 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd.”

Compare with earlier proof by “contraposition”.


Quite similar idea but slightly different proof strategy. 20
4) Proof by Exhaustion
• Proof by Exhaustion also known as the brute force method showing
that something is true for each and every case that could possibly be
considered.
4) Proof by Exhaustion
5) Proof by Cases
• A proof by cases must cover all possible cases that arise in a theorem.
5) Proof by Cases (Example)
5) Exhaustive Proof and Proof
by Cases
6) Existence Proofs

A proof of a proposition of the form ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is called an existence


Definition:

proof.
6) Existence Proofs
There are two types of existence proofs.
1. Constructive
The proof is given by finding an element such that 𝑃(𝑎) is true.
2. Nonconstructive
Someone shows that an element 𝑎 such that 𝑃(𝑎) is true must exist but does
not tell us what that element is. One method that could be used here is a proof
by contradiction. We show that the negation of an existence quantifier implies a
contradiction.
Constructive Proof of Existence
Constructive Proof of Existence
(Example)
Nonconstructive Proof of
Existence
• A non-constructive existence proof is a
mathematical proof that establishes the
existence of an object without providing an
explicit method or algorithm for finding or
constructing that object.
• Proof: there are two people in the world who
have the same birthday
Common Mistakes in Proofs
Proof Strategy
Proof Strategy: Forward
Reasoning

• One example: modus ponens/ direct proof


• Given an antecedent p and an implication p -> q ,
show that conclusions q is true
Proof Strategy – Backward
Reasoning
Proof Strategy – Backward
Reasoning
Mid Exam Preparation
• Lessons 1 – 6
• Closed Book
• 5 Questions
• Duration 2 hours

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