Lecture#04

Introduction
to
PN Junction
 P type Material
 A p-type material consists of silicon atoms and trivalent
impurity atoms such as boron.
 The boron atom adds a hole when it bonds with the silicon
atoms.
 However, since the number of protons and the number of
electrons are equal throughout the material, there is no net
charge in the material and so it is neutral.
 N type Material
 An n-type silicon material consists of silicon atoms and
pentavalent impurity atoms such as antimony, phosphorus.
 An impurity atom releases an electron when it bonds with four
silicon atoms.
 Since there is still an equal number of protons and electrons
(including the free electrons) throughout the material, there is
no net charge in the material and so it is neutral.
 PN Junction

 If a piece of intrinsic
silicon is doped so
that part is n-type and
the other part is p-
type, a pn junction
forms at the boundary
between the two
regions and a diode is
created.
 PN Junction
 The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free
electrons (minority carriers).
 The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from
the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes
(minority carriers).
Formation of the Depletion Region
The free electrons in the n
region are randomly
drifting in all directions.
At the instant of the pn
junction formation, the
free electrons near the
junction in the n region
begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region
where they combine with
holes near the junction, as
shown in Figure 1–19(b).
Formation of the Depletion Region
 When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as
they diffuse across the junction. This creates a layer of positive
charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction.
 As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes
as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer of negative
charges (trivalent ions) near the junction.
 These two layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region.
 The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the pn
junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to
diffusion across the junction.
 The depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin
compared to the n region and p region.
Formation of the Depletion Region
 After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction,
the depletion region has expanded to a point where
equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of
electrons across the junction.
 This occurs as follows. As electrons continue to diffuse across
the junction, more and more positive and negative charges are
created near the junction as the depletion region is formed.
 A point is reached where the total negative charge in the
depletion region repels any further diffusion of electrons
(negatively charged particles) into the p region (like charges
repel) and the diffusion stops. In other words, the depletion
region acts as a barrier to the further movement of electrons
across the junction.
 Barrier Potential
 In the depletion region there are many positive charges and
many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn junction. The
forces between the opposite charges form an electric field, as
illustrated in Figure 1–19(b) by the blue arrows between the
positive charges and the negative charges.
 This electric field is a barrier to
the free electrons in the n region,
and energy must be expended to
move an electron through the
electric field. That is, external
energy must be applied to get the
electrons to move across the
barrier of the electric field in the
depletion region.
 Barrier Potential
 The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
 This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
 Stated another way, a certain amount of voltage equal to the
barrier potential and with the proper polarity must be applied
across a pn junction before electrons will begin to flow across
the junction.
 The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several
factors, including the type of semiconductive material, the
amount of doping, and the temperature. The typical barrier
potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium.
Diod
e
 Diode
 A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor
material, usually silicon, in which, half is doped as a p region
and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and
depletion region in between.
 The p region is called the anode and is connected to a
conductive terminal.
 The n region is called the cathode and is connected to a
second conductive terminal.
 The basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown in
Figure 2–1.
 Biasing
To flow charges across the depletion region we have to
connect the external potential across the diode
terminals which is called Biasing.

Types of Biasing
• Forward Bias
• Reverse Bias
 Forward Bias
 To bias a diode, a dc voltage is applied across it.
 Forward bias is the condition that allows current through pn
junction.
 A dc voltage source connected by conductive material
(contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce
forward bias.
 Forward Bias
 This external bias voltage is designated as VBAIS.
 The negative side of VBAIS is connected to the n region of
diode and the positive side is connected to the p region. This is
one requirement for forward bias.
 A second requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS must be
greater than the barrier potential.
 Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region,
simply because they have lost too much energy overcoming
the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band.
 Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-
voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the left
end of the p region.
 The Effect of Forward Bias on the
Depletion Region
 As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number
of positive ions is reduced.
 As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the
other side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions is
reduced.
 This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward
bias causes the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in
Figure 2–5.
pn
 The effect of barrier potential During
Forward bias
 When forward bias is applied , the free electrons are provided
with enough energy from bias voltage source to overcome the
barrier potential and effectively climb the energy gap across
the depletion region.
 The energy that electrons require in order to pass through the
depletion region is equal to the barrier potential.
 The voltage drop across PN junction is equal to barrier
potential (0.7V).
 Reverse bias
 Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current
flow through diode.
 A DC voltage source is connected across a diode in the
direction to produce reverse bias.
 This external bias voltage is designated as Vbias .
 The positive side of Vbias is connected to n region of diode and
negative side is connected to p region.
 Depletion region is much wider than forward bias or
equilibrium.
 Reverse bias
 In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter
as valence electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion
region where they create additional negative ions.
 This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of
majority carriers. The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes
being “pulled” toward the positive side.
 The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very
short time after the reverse-bias voltage is applied. As the depletion region
widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases.
 As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the
electric field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength
until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS.
At this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for a very
small reverse current that can usually be neglected.
 Reverse Current
 The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level
than the conduction band in the n region.
 Therefore, the minority electrons easily pass through the
depletion region because they require no additional energy.
Reverse current is illustrated in Figure 2–8.
 Reverse Breakdown
 Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be
neglected.
 However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a
value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
 This is what happens. The high reverse-bias voltage imparts
energy to the free minority electrons so that as they speed
through the p region, they collide with atoms with enough
energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the
conduction band.
 Reverse Breakdown
 The newly created conduction electrons are also high in
energy and repeat the process. If one electron knocks only two
others out of their valence orbit during its travel through the p
region, the numbers quickly multiply. As these high-energy
electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough
energy to go through the n region as conduction electrons,
rather than combining with holes.
 Reverse Breakdown
 The multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is
known as the avalanche effect, and reverse current can
increase dramatically if steps are not taken to limit the current.
 When the reverse current is not limited, the resulting heating
will permanently damage the diode.
 Most diodes are not operated in reverse breakdown, but if the
current is limited (by adding a series-limiting resistor for
example), there is no permanent damage to the diode.