Ancient Africa

and the Ancient Americas

Chapter 3 (pp. 72-75)
Chapter 18 (pp. 440-471)
 Recent study of Africa

• According to anthropologists and geneticists, the geographical

source of modern humans.
– Recent African archaeological/anthropological studies have refined certain
aspects of historical inquiry: the “oral-historical, comparative-linguistic and
especially archaeological approaches” (Shaw and Jameson 22).
• Africa is quite diverse culturally, including
– Egypt and Nubia in the northwest (Nile Valley)
– Berbers in the north
– The Baka and the Mbuti in the central African forests
– Ancient Kalahari hunter-gatherers in the southwest
– Bantu-speaking peoples widely dispersed across sub-Saharan regions
– “One-quarter of all the languages in the world are spoken in Africa” (D & S
199).
 North Africa
• The Sahara was once a verdant grassland with herders and
farmers
– Tassili-n-ajjer paintings in Algeria
• 4500 BC: Transition from hunting to farming
• Change from cattle to sheep indicates dryer weather
(forming of the Sahara Desert)
– Sahara Desert in current condition by 2500 BC
• Berbers (pastoralists)
• 8th and 7th centuries BC: Phoenician colonization
– Carthage
• Latin church theologians: Tertullian and Augustine
 Garamantes
(c. 300 BC – AD 400)

• North African settled culture in Roman times (area of

present Libya)
• Nearly a thousand miles of tunnels in search of
ancient water in the desert
• At least 8 cities associated with them
• “The new archaeological evidence is showing that
the Garamantes were brilliant farmers, resourceful
engineers, and enterprising merchants who
produced a remarkable civilization” (David Mattingly,
qtd. in David Keys, “Kingdom of the Sands”).
Sub-Saharan Africa
 Lack of ancient artifacts
• Africa is difficult agriculturally, except for the volcanic
East African Rift Valley (Ethiopia to Zimbabwe), which
contributes to the Nile River zone.
– Much of the soil of Africa is lateritic: “high in salt and iron
content and notoriously short on nutrients and vulnerable
to erosion” (Benton and Di Yanni 352).
– Due to its difficult soil outside of the Nile/Rift Valley
environs, much of Africa does not produce the surplus
needed to create large civilizations.
– Continued reliance on game (hunter-gatherers), but also
herding (the Sahara once supported a herding economy
thousands of years ago).
– Large urban settlements in the western part of the
continent appear to occur after Muslim commerce arrives.
 Ethiopia (Axum/Saba/Sheba)

• First millennium BC
– There is a cultural connection across the Red Sea with the
Arabian peninsula, especially linguistically
– The Queen of Sheba in the Bible
• Later Ethiopian Kingdom
– Holds to a connection with King Solomon
– Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Church and the Coptic Church
• Rock churches
• The Table of Nations: Genesis 10
 Ancient West African peoples
• Three language groups:
– Nilo-Saharan: the most diverse, and thus perhaps oldest
• More prominent toward the eastern part of Africa
• Aquatic civilization (8000-2000 BC) along west-east band of land
where the sub-Saharan savannah now is; a possible barrier to sub-
Saharan Neolithic development due to success
– Afro-Asiatic: this language lacks early agricultural terms;
includes Berber languages, Hausa (of Nigeria), Egyptian
(Coptic), and the Semitic languages
– Niger-Congo: greatly dispersed because it includes
migratory Bantu
• Includes Zulu and Swahili
• Bantu groups moved from West Africa toward eastern Africa (c.
2000 BC, perhaps in response to the dryer conditions) before
agriculture was developed
 Significant West African cultures

• Nok
• Mali
• Yoruba

• Some were stateless societies

– Cf. the Igbo of Nigeria: “the Igbo have no kings”
• Others, though, recognized their kings as having divine right
• Clans and ancestors were important
• The Berbers of North Africa were the connecting link between
the Mediterranean and Sub-Saharan West Africa
 Nok
• Nok culture (1st millennium BC): located in what is now Nigeria in
west Africa (called geographically Western Sudan; see map 2.1 at
Fiero 45)
– Terracotta (unglazed earthenware) figures: “earliest known three-
dimensional artworks of sub-Saharan Africa” (Fiero 61; see fig. 2.24).
– Iron-workers
– Disappeared before the end of the first millennium BC.
– Some similarities to the later Yoruba culture have been noted.

– Comparison in research studies: The difficulty of determining connections

• Genealogy: There is a direct cultural connection between two groups.
– The most difficult to determine
• Homology: Two groups have a shared source.
• Analogy: Two groups have similarities, but there is no historical-cultural link
between the two groups.
 Kingdom of Ghana
(beg. c. 5th century AD)

• Located along the upper part of the Niger River.

• They had access to the wealth of the “gold” coast, and
became wealthy through trading gold and other goods, such
as ivory.
• Berbers took the wealth north to the Mediterranean Sea.
– They also took slaves.

• During Muslim times the famous trade center of Marrakech in

present-day Morocco was established (9th century AD).
 Mali Empire (13th cent. AD)
• The city of Timbuktu (founded AD 1100)
– The “greatest of early African trading centers” (Fiero 441).
– Muslim university.
– Great Mosque at Djenne, Mali (fig. 18.4), located at the oldest known
sub-Saharan city. The present mosque is the third on the same site
(note concept of sacred space).
– King Mansa Musa (1312-1337) as advocate of Muslim religion.

• Ibn Battuta’s Book of Travels (1354): Contains a personal

account of a visit to the Kingdom of Mali.

• Sundiata
– An epic narrative (c. 1240)
– It is about Mali’s hero and the founding of the Mali empire (recited by
griots, “poet-historians”). Originally based on oral tradition.
 Yoruba culture (at Benin and Ife)

• Copper alloy heads (brass; figs. 18.5 and 18.6)

– “oba” = “ruler”

– Some scholars “have suggested that they represent royal

or chiefly personages and that they were made for a royal
ancestor cult, probably associated with some form of
divine kingship” (Shaw and Jameson, A Dictionary of
Archaeology 296).
• African poetry
– call-and-response
• African music
– Call-and-response and
polyrhythmic
– sansa and banjo as
examples of instruments
• Art
– Masks: Unlike the realism
of the Benin brass heads,
the masks are examples
of “expressive
abstraction” (Fiero 449,
though a modern art
term); later influenced
Picasso.
– Channels the presence of
some being
 Bantu in East Africa
• A large language group; part of the Niger-Congo
language family.
• Migrated from w. Africa to eastern (sub-equatorial)
Africa (c. 1st millennium BC).
• Both stone and iron tools utilized, as well as
significant ceramics. The arrival of the Bantu in
eastern Africa is known as the Early Iron Age of East
Africa.
– This also included the introduction of new agriculture.
– Bantu also spread into southern Africa.
 “Peoples of the Coast” (Swahili)

– Zanj: Mogadishu, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar

– Major trading centers
– Bantu-Arabic society
• (Swahili language)

– Expansion of cultures was based on international

trade
• Malay people of southeast Asia trade with east coast of
Africa and Madagascar
 Congo River cultures and Zimbabwe
• The Congo River, the world’s deepest, begins at Lake
Tanganyika
– Second largest lake in the world by volume, plummeting to a depth of
4800 feet.
– Home to cichlid species of fish (popular in aquariums)
– Part of the Great Rift Valley system that extends northward to the Sea
of Galilee and beyond.
• Kongo: Atlantic coast
– Agriculture, herding, hunting, trade
• Luba: middle of the continent
– Herding and agriculture

• Zimbabwe (12th to 15th centuries)

– Bantu-based
– Great Zimbabwe: Profited from gold trade
 The Americas

Pre-Columbian
Fiero, chapter 3 (pp. 72-75)
 Upper Paleolithic (Old World)
Emergence of modern humans 100,000 BC Some leave Africa
(Homo sapiens sapiens) c. 80,000 BC

Aurignacian 32,000-25,000 BC Cave Chauvet paintings

Very cold climate;

Gravettian 25,000-17,000 BC Venus of Laussel;
Grimaldi “venuses”

Solutrean 18,000-15,000 BC Certain flint implements

Magdalenian 17,000 – 9,500 BC Lascaux paintings

Timeline developed from Discovering Périgord Prehistory, Brigitte and Gilles Delluc, et
al.
 The Neolithic Revolution (Old World)
 Begins c. 9,000 BC in Near East, 7,000 BC in central Europe
 Characterized by agricultural societies: tilling the land and sowing
seeds.
 More permanent communities develop.
 Marked increase in the size and complexity of communities.
 Farmers and herders, rather than hunter-gatherers.

Domestication of animals, thus people no longer follow the herds of reindeer,
etc. = Domestication or alteration of the environment; Humans affect the natural
environment.

Wheat-barley cow-sheep-goat subsistence.

Use of stone ax to clear forests (Delluc).
 Rise of pottery: 15,000 China; 10,000 north Africa; ceramics (high temp.
firing); Near East (Iran) 7000 BC; Potter’s wheel c. 6000-4000 BC
 Female figurines

 Movement toward Civilization = settlement and specialized skills,

relying on surplus to have time for other things.
 The First Americans
• From 20,000-12,000 years ago, modern humans came to the
Americas, most along the Bering Land Bridge (near Alaska)
– The actual dates of arrival are disputed by some.
• 11,000-12,000 years ago: the Pleistocene ended (i.e., the end of
the Ice Age)
• Due to their isolation on the American continents, the First
Americans missed out on the Neolithic Revolution in agriculture
(though some farming later developed), the domestication of
many animals (e.g., cattle and horses), the invention of the
wheel, the use of bronze weaponry and tools, and did not
develop pottery until c. 4000 BC. Thus, even the most
prominent Native American civilizations, such as the Inca and
Aztec, were without the wheel (and wagon), domesticated
cattle, and had limited tool metallurgy (the Inca had soft
bronze).
– Technologically, when the Europeans arrived, Native Americans were still
living somewhat in the Stone Age.
 Early American Migration and Settlement

• These early people were hunter-gatherers, and it is

speculated that large animal migrations prompted many of
these early migrants to cross the land bridge
• Mammoth (elephant), mastodon, now extinct species of bison, and
the camel
• This migration into the Americas via Beringia
coincides with the beginning of the extinction of Ice
Age megafauna (i.e., large animals) in North America.
– The mammoth disappeared c. 8000 – 6000 BC.
– The mastodons died out perhaps as late as c. AD 800 (in
South America).
Extinct North American Ice Age Megafauna

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 89

Note local discoveries at Diamond Lake near Hemet and at the La Brea Tar Pits
 Early American Migration and Settlement

• Exactly where the first migrants settled is still not known for
sure, but archeological discoveries, along with carbon dating,
provide historians with notable sites:
• Meadowcroft in Washington County, Pennsylvania (c. 15,000 BC)
• Monte Verde: Southern Chili (31,000 BC)
• Clovis, New Mexico (after which the “Clovis First” model)
• At Monte Verde, archaeologists have unearthed a number of
artifacts which leads them to believe that settlement took
place there c. 10,000 B.C.
• Structure foundations (rectangular), hearths, bone tools, mastodon
bones
• There is evidence for an even older settlement
 Clovis points

Clovis culture is generally regarded as the

earliest known culture in North America,
if not in all the Americas
(the “Clovis First” model;
11,200-10,500 BC).

But this assertion is now seriously

challenged;
see the articles listed later.

The North American

Clovis point was followed chronologically
by the Folsom Point (9000-8500 BC),
named after Folsom, New Mexico, and
the Late Paleo-Indian (8500-6000 BC).
Clovis tools
 Clovis culture
• In the archaeological record, some
mammoth kills were clearly associated
with Clovis culture.
– They also hunted native horses and camels,
all now extinct.
• The Clovis culture is one of the earliest
human cultures known in the western
hemisphere (c. 10,000 BC). Finds are
concentrated toward the eastern USA.
• Although not without controversy, Dr. Dennis Stanford with
Mr. Claude Provance
Dennis Stanford, Curator of
Archaeology at the Smithsonian
Institution, believes that Clovis point
technology likely derives from
European Solutrean technology
(see the Upper
Paleolithic timeline).
New models of New World origins

• On the cover of the book is a

Solutrean type of tool
discovered off the coast of
Virginia along with
mastodon remains. The
method for creating the tool
bears some similarity to the
Clovis method.

• Other studies on the first

Early Americans

– First Article

– Second Article
 Early American Migration and Settlement

• Prior to European settlement, the northern and southern

American continents were home to more than 2,000 separate
cultures and people groups
• Mesoamerica and South America: Aztecs, Mayans, Olmec, Inca
• North America: Adena, Hopewell, Mississippian, and Anasazis
• Several hundred different languages were spoken
Ancient Mesoamerica
and South America
We are now moving
much later in time
 Caral, Sechin Bajo, and Chankillo
• The earliest large settlements in the Americas
• All three sites are in present day Peru
• Caral (c. 2600) and Sechin Bajo (c. 3500 BC) are
contemporaneous with early Bronze Age Mesopotamia and
Egypt, yet still in the “Stone Age.”
– Pyramids discovered at Caral
– Amphitheatre at Caral (fig. 3.9)
– “Yet, at Caral, there were no draft animals, no wheeled vehicles, no
evidence of writing, and no metal tools and weapons” (Fiero, The
Humanistic Tradition6 2:73).
– For more on Caral, see:
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/firstcity.html
 Mesoamerican Civilizations

• Mesoamerica is a geographic region which

stretches from south central Mexico to the
northern reaches of modern-day Honduras
• Olmec, Maya, and Aztec
 Mesoamerican Civilizations

• Between 2000-1500 B.C., this area developed many

permanent agricultural towns, which in turn helped
to bring about agrarian societies growing a variety of
crops
• Maize (corn), squash, pumpkins, beans, tomatoes
• Of all crops, maize was the most significant, and its
cultivation can be traced back to c. 4,500 B.C.
• One of the earliest Mesoamerican civilizations was
the Olmec: c. 1200 B.C.
 Mesoamerican civilizations
• Olmec
– 1200-400 BC (Oxford Companion to Archaeology)
• San Lorenzo (1200-900 BC)
• La Venta (900-400 BC)
– Stone carvings
– 16 Colossal stone heads up to 12 feet high.
• These are found in the 1200-900 BC phase.
• Some weigh up to 20 tons.
– Drainage system (San Lorenzo)
– Earthwork pyramid 100 feet high (c. 900-400 BC phase).
• Also from this time are earthen mounds.
– Jaguar deity
– The development of social classes and complex
organization makes the Olmec one of the earliest
advanced Mesoamerican civilizations.
Olmec
 Mesoamerican civilizations

• The Olmec disappeared around 400 BC, but their

legacy could be found in the cultural achievements of
the Mayan civilization that, by 250 BC, was
flourishing
• Like the Olmec, the Maya also built major cities such
as Tikal located in modern day Northern Guatemala
 Maya civilization
(c. 400 BC – c. AD 1600)
• Yucatán peninsula and surrounding area
– Developed hieroglyphic writing.
• Recorded celestial movements
– Unlike earliest writing in Sumer, Mayan texts deal with
myths, legends and history of the people.
• The Mayan Universe: Three-layered cosmos with the Wacah Chan
tree going from middle up to heaven as the cosmic pole.
• Astronomical knowledge:
– 365-day calendar
– Also had a year based on human gestational period
(fertility)
 Tikal
Pyramids
(Maya; in
Guatemala; AD
300-900)
Population of
60,000 at one
point

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 150

 Maya civilization
• At Tikal, six giant pyramids in northern Guatemala.
– Temple-tomb combination.
• Also notable is the tomb of Pakal, ruler of Palenque (in Mexico),
called the Temple of the Inscriptions (600s AD).
– Solid mass construction, where newer ones were built on
top of older ones (analogous to Mesopotamia).
– Five of them are over 150 feet high.
– Two are nearly 230 feet high.
• Human sacrifice
• Maya civilization mysteriously and significantly
declined around AD 800-900.
House of the
Magician
(Maya)

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 151

 Teotihuacán, “Place of the gods”
(post 300 BC; apex AD 350-750)
• Not far from present day Mexico City
• Population 100,000-200,000 (very populous).
• At its apex, sixth largest city in the world. Covers 8 square miles.
• Used to be thought that it was earliest city in the western
hemisphere. Now Caral in Peru is?
• Classic Period (c. AD 200-700).
• Pyramids: Pyramid of the Moon and Pyramid of the Sun (adobe).
• North-south axis street = “Street of the Dead.”
• Platform temples and palaces.
• Temple of Quetzalcoatl.
• The complex has astronomical and religious importance.
• The identity of the people who built this city remains a mystery.
 Teotihuacán

Benton and Di Yanni fig. 10.2

 Teotihuacán
“The development of the city seems to have involved inter-site
population movements, exploitation of natural resources, an
increase in agricultural production, technological inventions,
establishment of trading systems and other kinds of socio-
political organizations, and attractive belief systems”
(Sugiyama, bold added).

Built c. AD 1-200

The identity of the builders remains unknown.

Sugiyama, Saburo. “Archaeology of Teotihuacan, Mexico.” Archaeology of Teotihuacan. Arizona

State University, 1996. <http://archaeology.asu.edu/teo/intro/intrteo.htm>.
Pyramid of
the Sun
(Teotihuacán)

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 217

 Pyramid of the Sun
• The Pyramid of the Sun is larger in volume than the
Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt.
– It is astronomically oriented to the rising of the Pleiades at
the equinoxes.
– It was built over a cave.
• Links heaven and earth (so, too, the temples of Mesopotamia).
– 365-day solar year implied with the steps (182 x 2 +1).
 The Toltecs and the Aztecs (Mexica)
• Toltecs (AD 900-1200): predecessors of
• Mexica (Aztecs; 1325-1521) at Lake Texcoco.
– Warlike and practiced human sacrifice.
– Major builders and agriculturalists.
• Many aqueducts
– Used a calendar year of 365 days.
• Note: Mesopotamia used a 360-day year; Egypt, a 365-day year.
• Capital: Tenochtitlán; very populous (200,000)
• Montezuma I ruled AD 1440-1469.
• Ferocious deity Coatlique: death and fertility
(creative principle). Earth goddess.
 The fall of Aztec civilization
• The city of Tenochtitlan was home to palaces,
temples, markets, residential districts, aqueducts, all
of which were connected by a complex set of streets

• Eventually, the great Aztec empire would fall to the

Spanish conquistadors under the leadership of
Hernan Cortes in 1521 ( who allied with Tlaxcala)
• 1502-1520: Montezuma II
 Hernán Cortés
 Conquered area of Mexico in 1519/1521
 Discovered Baja California in 1533
 Cultural background:
 From at least the 10th century on, the Christians in northern Iberia (the Spanish
peninsula where Spain and Portugal are today) were involved in a great struggle to
(gradually) retake lands to the south held under Muslim control. This long struggle
over hundreds of years is known as the Reconquista.
 This ongoing endeavor on the part of Christians in Spain inspired the famous
medieval Crusades, which sought to take the Holy Land out of Muslim hands.
 The last Muslims were expelled from the Iberian peninsula (at Granada) in 1492.
 Columbus made his first expedition to the New World in 1492 (under Spanish flag),
and Hernán Cortés was not far behind, historically.
 Thus, the conquest of the New World by Conquistadores needs to be seen in this
light. They were essentially within an advanced medieval knight tradition, and
Spanish society at the time was highly militarized. Once they finished with their
own peninsula, they moved the crusade to new territory. The peoples of what is
today Latin America were invaded by a devastating army of warriors.
 Cultures of Peru
• The Moche (AD 200-700)
– Huaca type of pyramids (sun-dried brick).
– Huaca del Sol is 135 feet high and utilizes 143 million
bricks.
– This culture is noted for its ceramics (pottery).
 Huaca del Sol (Moche)

Benton and Di Yanni fig. 10.7

 Cultures of Peru
• The Inca (c. 1300-1532)
– Andes Mountains.
– Capital: Cuzco, pop. 100,000. Near Lake Titicaca.
– “Land of Four Quarters”
• Pachacutec’s centralized state: beg. 1438
– Utilized regional governments
• Influence extended into Argentina
– Rulers considered divine and descended from the sun
– Engineers: 25,000 miles of roads; enormous empire that
“encompassed over a hundred societies, who inhabited nearly
386,000 square miles” (OCA 340).
• Major storage facilities for food, clothing and weaponry
– Machu Picchu (c. 1450): perhaps a small town for Cuzco elite.
Incredibly large stones involved.
– No wheel. The Inca were a rare case of bronze tool utilization, such as
chisels and crow bars, but it was rather soft bronze.
 Cuzco

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 220

Cuzco
(detail)

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 221

Machu Picchu
(Incan)

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 223

 Nazca people of Peru
• Geoglyphs – giant drawings

Benton and Di Yanni fig. 10.10

Cf. Giant figures (Blythe, California)
 Early North American Cultures

• While the Mesoamerican and South American

civilizations developed, so did certain Native
American groups north of Mexico
 North America
(north of Mexico)

• 2000 BC: maize, squash and beans arrive from Mesoamerica

• Adena culture (500 BC – AD 200)
– Burial mounds
– Serpent Mound, Ohio: perhaps fertility concept involved
• 1400 feet long, and 4 to 5 feet high
– Newark ceremonial center in Ohio
– Farmers (incl. sunflowers, but not maize)
• Hopewell culture (c. 200 BC – AD 400)
– Mound builders (tombs); Ohio area
• Mississippian culture (c. AD 1000 – 1540)
– Cahokia, near East St. Louis. Includes Monks Mound (100 feet high).
Pop. 30,000 (AD 1050-1250), the largest pre-Columbian city in what
would become the United States of America.
– Giant pyramid /mound structure
 Burial mounds
Adena culture, Chillicothe, Ohio

Photo courtesy of Claude Provance

 Great Serpent Mound (Ohio)

Benton and Di Yanni fig. 10.13

Grave Creek Mound, Adena culture, West Virginia

Photo courtesy of Claude Provance

 Cahokia

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 182-3

 Other Native American cultures of North America

• Incredible diversity in America

– About 300 languages
• Pacific Northwest
• Southwest: Anasazi (“ancient ones”)
• California
 Cultures in the American Northwest
• There were a number of different cultures living in the
American Pacific Northwest, including the Kwakiutl, Nootka,
and Haida people
• From Oregon to Alaska
• Many natural resources
• Salmon, shellfish and sea mammals
• Because of their environment, the tribes of the Northwest
Coast developed complex societies
– Within these societies, social classes were established based upon
wealth, and families depicted their wealth at potlatches.
– Totem (mortuary) poles
 Cultures in the American Southwest

• Unlike the Northwest, the land of the Southwest was

much harsher, but by 3,000 BC, people began to farm
• The Hohokam of central Arizona used irrigation canals to
grow a number of different crops; Mesoamerican ball
courts
• They also used pottery and there is clear evidence
that their religious activities were influenced by the
Mesoamericans
 Cultures in the American Southwest

• Southwest: Anasazi (“ancient ones”)

– American Southwest (beg. 400 BC) near the meeting point
of Utah, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico (Four Corners)
– Pueblos made of stone and adobe
• The Coptic (Egyptian) word for stone, “TOBE,” was taken by
Muslims to Spain, from whence it came to the Americas to
become the word for mudbrick, namely, “adobe.”
– Pueblo Benito at Chaco Canyon (AD 900-1250)
• 5000 people accommodated
– Mesa Verde cliff dwellings (in Colorado)
• kiva: circular underground ceremonial room; celebration of earth
Pueblo Bonito
masonry

Mysteries of the Ancient Americas 256

 Native Californians
• Significant diversity
– Over one hundred different languages and many different cultures,
reflecting one of the most diverse geographical regions ever known
• The highest concentration of Native Americans in what
would become the USA
– One-third of all Native Americans lived in what is today California
– The indigenous population of California was likely at least 300,000.
• “Island-on-the-land”: Californians isolated from the rest of
the continent (Starr 12)
– The mountains to the north and east, and the deserts to the east
and south, together make a formidable barrier with the rest of the
continent, a barrier that was only permeated by European ships
arriving via the sea or with great difficulty by American pioneers.
On all the above, see Starr 13
 General characteristics of Native Californian
groups at the time of Spanish settlement
• Not warlike
• Used sweat lodges
• Communal attitude toward property
• The acorn as predominant staple food
• The best basket weavers in the world
– Their baskets could hold boiling water without leaking
• In myth, recognized the coyote as the creator deity
 Works Cited
• Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-age
Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. Print.
• Benton, Janetta, and Robert DiYanni. Arts and Culture: An Introduction to
the Humanities. Volume II. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall,
1998. Print.
• Duiker, William J., and Jackson J. Spielvogel [D & S]. The Essential World
History. 6th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2011. Print.
• Fiero, Gloria K. The Humanistic Tradition Volume 1: The Early Modern
World to the Present. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
Print.
• Fleming, William. Arts & Ideas. 9th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers, 1995. Print.
• Miller, Barbara Stoller, trans. The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in
Time of War. New York: Bantam, 1986. Print.
• Miller, Barbara Stoller, ed. Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva’s
Gitagovinda. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977, 1997.
Print.
 Works Cited
• Mysteries of the Ancient Americas: The New World Before Columbus.
Project editor, Joseph L. Gardner. Project art editor, Gilbert L. Nielsen
Pleasantville: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1986. Print.
• Oxford Companion to Archaeology, The. Brian M. Fagan, ed. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994. Print.
• Ramanujan, A. K., trans. Speaking of Siva. London: Penguin, 1973. Print.
• Shaw, Ian, and Robert Jameson, eds. A Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1999, 2002. Print.
• Stanford, Dennis J., and Bruce A. Bradley. Across Atlantic Ice: The
Origin of America’s Clovis Culture. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2012. Print.
• Starr, Kevin. California: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2005. Print.
• Sugiyama, Saburo. “Teotihuacan: Introduction.” Archaeology of
Teotihuacan. Arizona State University, 1996. Web. 31 Aug 2012. <
http://archaeology.asu.edu/teo/intro/intrteo.htm >.