Control Systems

Ruqia
Ikram

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 Module 2

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Modeling in The Frequency Domain

 Introduction
 Laplace Transform Review
 The Transfer Function
 Translational Mechanical Transfer Function
 Rotational Mechanical Transfer Function
 Transfer Functions for the System with Gears
 Electromechanical Systems Transfer Function
 Nonlinearities
 Linearization

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Modeling in The Frequency Domain

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Introduction

After obtaining schematic of control system, the next step is to develop

mathematical model from schematics of physical system.

Two methods that can be used for developing this model are
 Transfer Functions in the frequency domain
 State Equations in the time domain

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Laplace Transform Review
A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block
diagram.
Significance of Laplace transform
 Represent the input, output, and system as separate entities.
 Their interrelationship is simply algebraic.

The Laplace transform is defined as

a complex number

The notation for the lower limit means that even if f(t) is discontinuous at t =0,
we can start the integration prior to the discontinuity as long as the integral
converges.
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Laplace Transform Review
The inverse Laplace transform, which allows us to find given is

Where is a unit step function

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Laplace Transform Review
Table relating f(t) to F(s) for specific cases.

Correction

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Laplace Transform Review
Laplace transform of unit impulse (Dirac delta) function

By using the property of impulse function

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Laplace Transform Review
Laplace transform of unit step function

∞
𝐹 ( 𝑠 ) =∫ 𝑢(𝑡 )𝑒
− 𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡
−
0

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Laplace Transform Review

Laplace transform of sinusoidal function

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Laplace Transform Review

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Laplace Transform Review

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Laplace Transform Review

Using the Laplace transform pairs of Table 2.1 and the Laplace transform
theorems of Table 2.2, derive the Laplace transforms for the following time
functions:

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

 To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function convert the

function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform
of each term using Partial-Fraction Expansion.
 Partial-fraction expansion can only applied if order of numerator N(s) is less
than the order of denominator D(s).
 If the order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s)
must be divided by D(s) successively.

 On the basis of roots of Laplace transform, three different cases that will be
discussed for partial fraction expansion are as follow:
 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct
 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated
 Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Rules for Partial Fraction Expansion

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct

An example of an F(s) with real and distinct roots in the denominator is

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated

An example of an F(s) with real and repeated roots in the denominator is

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary

An example of F(s) with complex roots in the denominator is

The last term can be shown to be the sum of the Laplace transforms of an
exponentially damped sine and cosine.

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Similarly,

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Example:
Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero.

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

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Transfer Function

What is transfer function?

Function that algebraically relates a system’s output to its input.

 This function will allow separation of the input, system, and output into three
separate and distinct parts, unlike the differential equation.
 The function will also allow to algebraically combine mathematical
representations of subsystems to yield a total system representation.

Where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the ai’s, bi’s, and the form of the
differential equation represent the system

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Transfer Function

By taking Laplace transform on both sides of differential equation

Assuming initials conditions are zeros

This equation separates the output, C(s), the input, R(s), and the system, the
ratio of polynomials called G(s), the transfer function.

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Transfer Function

Example#1
Find the transfer function represented by

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial

conditions,

The transfer function, G(s), is

If r(t) unit step input or ramp input………?

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Transfer Function

Example#2
Find the transfer function represented by

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial

conditions,

The transfer function, G(s), is

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Transfer Function

Example#3
Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function

𝐶 ( 𝑠) 2 𝑠 +1
= 2
𝑅( 𝑠) 𝑠 +6 𝑠+ 2

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Mechanical systems have following three passive, linear components.
 Spring and Mass, Energy-storage elements
 Viscous damper, Dissipates energy

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
In the table, K, , and M are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction,
and mass, respectively.

The mechanical system requires just one differential equation, called the
equation of motion.

Steps to find transfer function of translational mechanical system

 Draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces that act on the body either
in the direction of motion or opposite to it.

 Use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion by summing the forces
and setting the sum equal to zero.

 Assuming zero initial conditions, take the Laplace transform of the differential
equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer function.

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Example
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s) for the system

Step1:
Draw the free-body diagram

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Step 2:
Use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion

Step 3:
Take the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

Impedances

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required is equal to
the number of linearly independent motions (number of degrees of freedom).

Steps to find transfer function of mechanical system with MDOF.

 Draw free-body diagram for each point of motion and then use superposition.
For each free-body diagram, hold all other points of motion still and find the
forces acting on the body due only to its own motion. Then hold the body still
and activate the other points of motion one at a time, placing on the original
body the forces created by the adjacent motion.

 Use Newton’s law to sum the forces on each body and set the sum to zero.

 As Laplace transforms, these equations are then solved for the output
variable of interest in terms of the input variable from which the transfer
function is evaluated.

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Example
Find the transfer function F(s) for the system

This is two DOF system

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

a. Forces on M2 due only to motion of M2

a. Forces on M1 due only to motion of M1
b. Forces on M2 due only to motion of M1
b. Forces on M1 due only to motion of M2
c. All forces on M2
c. All forces on M1

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

The Laplace transform of the equations of motion

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
The transfer function F(s) is

Where

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Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Write down the equations of motion for the following mechanical system.

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
 In rotational mechanical systems torque replaces force and angular
displacement replaces translational displacement.

 The mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those
for translational systems, except that the components undergo rotation
instead of translation.

 Equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to equations for

translational systems; the only difference is that the free-body diagram
consists of torques rather than forces.

 Rotate a body while holding all other points still and place on its free-body
diagram all torques due to the body’s own motion. Then, holding the body
still, rotate adjacent points of motion one at a time and add the torques due to
the adjacent motion to the free-body diagram.

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
The values of K, D, and J are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and
moment of inertia, respectively.

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Example
Find the transfer function (s) for the following rotational system
The rod is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is
applied at the left, and the displacement is measured at the right.

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

a. Torques on J1 due only to the motion of J1

b. Torques on J1 due only to the motion of J2
c. Final free-body diagram for J1

a. Torques on J2 due only to the motion of J2

b. Torques on J2 due only to the motion of J1
c. Final free-body diagram for J2

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
The required transfer function is found to be

Where

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Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
Write the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the following system

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
 Gears provide mechanical advantage to rotational systems.

 The systems those driven by motors, are rarely seen without associated gear
trains driving the load.

 Gears allow to match the drive system and the load—a trade-off between
speed and torque. For many applications, gears exhibit backlash however in
this section, assuming ideal behaviour of gears with no blacklash.

 The linearized interaction between two gears is depicted

Gear System
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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
As distance traveled along each gear’s circumference is the same

Since ratio of the number of teeth along the circumference is in the same
proportion as the ratio of the radii

Assume the gears are lossless, that is they do not absorb or store energy, the
energy into Gear 1 equals the energy out of Gear 2

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 Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
Equivalent system without the gears

a. Rotational system driven by gears b. Equivalent system at the output after reflection of input torque

c. Equivalent system at the input after reflection of impedances

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
Rotational mechanical impedances can be reflected through gear trains by
multiplying the mechanical impedance by the ratio

where the impedance to be reflected is attached to the source shaft and is being
reflected to the destination shaft.

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
Example
Find the transfer function (s) for the given system

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears

First reflect the impedances (and ) and torque () on the input shaft to the output
as shown following, where the impedances are reflected by and the torque is
reflected by ().

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
The transfer function is found to be

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
In order to eliminate gears with large radii, a gear train is used to implement
large gear ratios by cascading smaller gear ratios.

Gear train

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Transfer Functions for Systems with
Gears
Example
Find the transfer function (s) for the given system

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions
 Many applications for systems with electromechanical components includes
the antenna azimuth position control, robot controls, sun and star trackers,
and computer tape and disk-drive position controls.
 A motor is an electromechanical component that yields a displacement output
for a voltage input, that is, a mechanical output generated by an electrical
input.

 the back electromotive force (back emf); is a constant of proportionality called the
𝑑 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡 )
back emf constant and is the
=𝜔angular
𝑚 (𝑡 )
velocity of the motor.
𝑑𝑡

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions
Taking the Laplace transform

The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the armature current. .

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions
Assuming that the armature inductance is small compared to the armature
resistance.

Motor with inertia and damping at the armature driving a load consisting of inertia
and damping .

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

The torque axis intercept occurs when the angular velocity reaches zero. That
value of torque is called the stall torque.

The angular velocity occurring when the torque is zero

is called the no-load speed

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions
Example
Given the system and torque-speed curve, Find the transfer function (s).

Finding the mechanical constants

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Electromechanical System Transfer
Functions
Finding the electrical constants

In order to find (s). we use the gear ratio,

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Nonlinearities
 The models thus far are developed from systems that can be described
approximately by linear, time-invariant differential equations.
 A linear system possesses two properties: superposition and homogeneity.

Superposition
An input of yields output
Homogeneity
An input of yields an output of

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Nonlinearities
Examples of physical nonlinearities

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Linearization
If any nonlinear components are present, system must be linearize before
finding the transfer function.
Steps for linearization
 Recognize the nonlinear component and write the nonlinear differential
equation.
 Linearize the nonlinear differential equation.
 Laplace transform of the linearized differential equation, assuming zero initial
conditions.
 Separate input and output variables and form the transfer function.

Example

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Reference
Chapter 2, Control Systems Engineering, Norman S Nise, 6th edition.

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Find the transfer function .

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