Operating Systems

College of Science
Computer Dept.
Higher Diploma

By
Aree Ali M.
2007
 Computer Organization
and Architecture

 Architecture is those attributes visible to the programmer

– Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
 Organization is how features are implemented
– Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
 All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
 The IBM System/370 family share the same basic architecture

 This gives code compatibility

– At least backwards
 Organization differs between different versions
 Structure & Function

 Structure is the way in which components relate to each other

 Function is the operation of individual components as part of the
structure

All computer functions are: Data

Storage
Data processing
Facility
Data storage Data Control
Data movement Move Mechanism
Control ment
Appa Data
ratus Processing
Facility
Functional view of a computer
 Operations (1)

 Data movement
– e.g. keyboard to screen

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Mechanism
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
 Operations (2)
 Storage
– e.g. Internet download to disk
Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Mechanism
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
 Operations (3)

 Processing from/to storage

– e.g. updating bank statement
Data
Storage
Facility

Data Control
Movement Mechanism
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
 Operations (4)

 Processing from storage to I/O

– e.g. printing a bank statement Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Mechanism
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
 Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit
Computer Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
 Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O
Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
 Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
 Moore’s Law

 Increased density of components on chip

 Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel
 Number of transistors on a chip will double every year
 Since 1970’s development has slowed a little
– Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
 Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
 Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher
performance
 Smaller size gives increased flexibility
 Reduced power and cooling requirements
 Fewer interconnections increases reliability
Computer Components:
Top Level View
 Instruction Cycle

 Two steps:
– Fetch
– Execute
 Buses

 There are a number of possible interconnection systems

 Single and multiple BUS structures are most common
 e.g. Control/Address/Data bus (PC)
 e.g. Unibus (DEC-PDP)

 What is a Bus?

A communication pathway connecting two or more devices

Usually broadcast
Often grouped
A number of channels in one bus
e.g. 32 bit data bus is 32 separate single bit channels
Power lines may not be shown
 Buses
- DATA BUS
 Carries data
– Remember that there is no difference between “data” and “instruction” at this
level
 Width is a key determinant of performance
– 8, 16, 32, 64 bit
- ADDRESS BUS
 Identify the source or destination of data
 e.g. CPU needs to read an instruction (data) from a given location in memory
 Bus width determines maximum memory capacity of system
– e.g. 8080 has 16 bit address bus giving 64k address space
- CONTROL BUS
 Control and timing information
– Memory read/write signal
– Interrupt request
– Clock signals
Bus Interconnection Scheme
 Introduction

 What is an Operating System?

 What are the components of an OS?
 What does an OS do?
 Short History of OS.
 Different types of OS.
What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware.

 Operating system goals:

– Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
– Make the computer system convenient to use.

 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

Computer System Components

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources

(CPU, memory, I/O devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the
use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – define the ways in
which the system resources are used to solve
the computing problems of the users (compilers,
database systems, video games, business
programs).
4. Users - (people, machines, other computers).
Abstract View of System
Components
 System Components

* The operating system run in kernel or supervisor mode – protected

from user tampering

* Compilers, editors and application programs run in user mode

 Functions of an OS

 User Environment - OS layer transforms bare hardware machine into higher level
abstractions

– Execution environment - process management, file manipulation, interrupt

handling, I/O operations, language.
– Error detection and handling
– Protection and security
– Fault tolerance and failure recovery

 Resource Management
– Time management
 CPU and disk transfer scheduling
– Space management
 main and secondary storage allocation
– Synchronization and deadlock handling
 critical section, coordination
– Accounting and status information
 resource usage tracking
 History of Operating Systems
 Pre-electronic
– Charles Babbage (1792-1871) “analytical machine”
– Purely mechanical, failed because technology could not produce the
required wheels, cog, gears to the required precision
 First generation 1945 - 1955
– Aiken, von Neumann, Eckert, Mauchley and Zuse
– programming done via plugboards, no OS or language
– vacuum tubes
 Second generation 1955 - 1965
– transistors more reliable than vacuum tubes
– jobs read in via punched cards
– batch systems introduced to reduce wasted time in setting up and
running jobs
 History of Operating Systems

 Third generation 1965 – 1980

– IBM System/360: combine business and scientific computers into one machine
– Computer will grow with client(memory, processor speed, number of I/O
devices etc.)
– Forerunner of 370, 4300, 3080 and 3090
– Use of integrated circuits provided major price/performance advantage over
2nd generation
– OS/360 had to meet conflicting needs which resulted in enormous and complex
operating system
– Introduced multiprogramming to make most efficient use of CPU

 Spooling: read jobs from cards to disk ready to load into memory and
queue output to disk for printing
 History of Operating Systems

 Fourth generation 1980 – present

– Large Scale Integrated chips

– personal computers
– 1974: Intel developed 8080 chip (8 bit CPU), Gary Kildall wrote
CP/M OS (Intel gave him the rights) and formed Digital Research
– Early 1980s: IBM designed IBM PC. Bill Gates had BASIC
interpreter and recommended DR as an OS. Kildall sent
subordinate to meeting and refused to sign non-disclosure.
Gates was asked for an OS, bought DOS from Seattle Computer
Products and offered IBM DOS/BASIC package. Renamed it MS -
DOS
– Early Windows versions ran on top of DOS, Windows 95 and
beyond and NT were full fledged OSs
– Network Operating Systems (user sees multiple computers)
– Distributed Operating Systems (user sees one processor)
Memory Layout for a Simple Batch and
Multiprogramming System
 OS Features Needed for
Multiprogramming

 Why multiprogramming?
– Increases CPU utilization by trying to always keep the
CPU busy processing some job
– I/O of one job causes switch to another job
 Memory management – the system must allocate
the memory to several jobs.
 CPU scheduling – the system must choose
among several jobs ready to run.
 Allocation of devices.
 Desktop Systems

 Personal computers – computer system

dedicated to a single user.
 I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display screens,
small printers.
 User convenience and responsiveness.
 Can adopt technology developed for larger
operating systems. Often individuals have sole
use of computer and do not need advanced CPU
utilization of protection features.
 May run several different types of operating
systems (Windows, MacOS, UNIX, Linux)
 Parallel Systems

 Multiprocessor systems with more than on CPU in close communication.

 Tightly coupled system – processors share memory and a clock;
communication usually takes place through the shared memory.
 Advantages of parallel system:
– Increased throughput with more processors
– Economical – share peripherals, mass storage, power etc. as opposed
to individual PCs
– Increased reliability
 graceful degradation / fault tolerant
– failure of one processor will slow down but not halt the
system
– other processors pick up the slack
Migration of Operating-System
Concepts and Features