PROBLEM SOLVING:

INDUCTIVE AND
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
What is a PROBLEM?
A problem is a statement requiring a solution,
usually by means of mathematical operation/
geometric construction.
What is a PROBLEM SOLVING?
The word “method” means the ways or techniques used
to get answer which will, usually involve one or more
problem solving strategies.

Problem solving is a process an ongoing activity in

which we take what we know to discover what we don’t
know.
Problem- solving involves three basic functions:

1. Seeking information
2. Generating new knowledge
3. Making decisions
Mathematical Reasoning
It refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem
situations and construct logical arguments to justify the
process or hypothesis, to create both conceptual
foundations and connections, in order for him to be able to
process the information.
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a
general conclusion by examining specific examples.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO PREDICT A NUMBER
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list is
3 larger that 15, which is 18.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO PREDICT A NUMBER
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the
third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the difference
between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we
predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than
15, which is 21.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO MAKE A CONJECTURE
• Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

• Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship

between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.

Solution
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 4 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We conjecture that the give procedures a number id four times the original
number.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO SOLVE AN APPLICATION

The period of a pendulum is the time is the time it takes for the pendulum to
swing from left to right and back to its original position.
LENGTH OF PENDULUM IN UNIT PERIODS OF PENDULUM IN
HEARTBEATS
1 1

4 2

9 3

16 4

A. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its
length. Thus we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will
have a period of 7 heartbeats.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO SOLVE AN APPLICATION

The period of a pendulum is the time is the time it takes for the pendulum to
swing from left to right and back to its original position.

B. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period of 4
units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A
pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that a pendulum
with a length if 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum
doubles its period.
COUNTEREXAMPLES
A statement is a true statement provided that is true in all cases. If you
can find one case for which a statement is not true, called counterexample,
then the statement is a false statement.
Examples:
Every number that is multiple of 10 is divisible by 4.
100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200

100 4 = 25
120 4 = 30
110 4 = 27.5

With this example, we have shown that not all multiples of 10 are divisible by
4. So we call 110 as a counterexample.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement bu
finding a counterexample.

For all number x:

• |x| > 0
 Let x = 0. Then |0| = 0.
Thus “for all number x, |x|.0” is false statement.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement bu
finding a counterexample.

For all number x:

 Let . Then .
Thus “for all number ” is false statement.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement bu
finding a counterexample.

For all number x:

 Let . Then .
Thus “for all number ” is false statement.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying
general; assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Example:
• If a number is divisible by 2, then it must be even.
12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.
Example:
• If an <A and <B are supplementary angles, their sum is 180˚ .
If m <A = 100, then m<B = 80.
Use Deductive reasoning to Establish a Conjecture
• Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Let n represent the original number

8n
8n + 6

4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
proceduces a number that is four times the original number.
Deductive Reasoning is commonly used in Geometry
• Solve for x in the equation 3(x+4) – 2x = 20. Justify your answer.

Statement Reasons
3(x + 4) – 2x = 20 Given
3x + 12 – 2x = 20 Distributive property
3x – 2x +12 = 20 Commutative property
x + 12 = 20 Closure property
x = 20 - 12 Transposition
x=8 Closure property
Determine what types of reasoning
• During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce
plums.

• All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvement will cost 35,000. Thus my home
improvement will cost more than 35,000.
 POLYA’S PROBLEM
SOLVING STRATEGIES
POLYA’S FOUR STEP PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution
Understand the Problem
• Can you restate the problem in your own words?
• Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
• Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
• Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
• What is the goal?
DEVISE A PLAN
• Make a list of the known information.
• Make a list of information that is needed.
• Draw a diagram
• Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
• Make a table or chart
• Work backwards
• Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
• Look for a pattern
• Write an equation, if necessary, define what each variable
represents.
• Perform an experiment
• Guess at a solution and then check your result
CARRY OUT THE PLAN
• Work carefully
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
• Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
REVIEW THE SOLUTION
• Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.
 EXAMPLE 1
A baseball team won two out of their last four games, in now many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four
games?

Understand the problem There are many different orders. The team may
have won two straight games and lost the
(WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games
and won the last two (LLWW). Or course there
are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a plan Make an organized list of possibilities.
Carry out the plan WWLL, WLWL, WLLW, LWWL, LWLW, LLWW
Review the solution
The list has no duplicates and the list considers all
possibilities are six orders in which baseball team
win can exactly two out of four games.
EXAMPLE 2
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams play each of the
other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be
played?
Understand the problem
There are 10 teams in the league, and each team
plays exactly three games against each of the
other teams. The problem is to determine the
total number of league games that will be played.
Devise a plan Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler
problem. Considered with only four teams.
Hence, four teams can play each other once in 4.3/2
=6
Carry out the plan gamesthe process developed above, we see that
Using
10 teams can play each other once. In a total of .
Since each team plays each opponent exactly
three times, the total number of games is 45 x 3 =
Review the solution 135.
Make an organized list.
 EXAMPLE 3
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in
the decimal representation ?

Understand the problem Express the fraction as a decimal and look for a
pattern that will enable use to determine the digit
100 places to the right of the decimal point.

Devise a plan Make a table and look for a pattern. Dividing 7

into 27 by long division or by using calculator
procedures the decimal 0.259259259259259…
Carry out the plan Look for a pattern, we can tell that the 99th
decimal digit (because 99 is divisible by 3) must
be at 9. since at 2 always follows a 9 in the
pattern, the 100th decimal digit must be at 2.
Review the solution Using table can illustrates additional patterns.
 EXAMPLE 4
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. none
of the teens are the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Understand the problem We need to determine three distinct counting, form

Devise a plan the list 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a
Carry out the plan product
Guess and of 4590.
check. Represent the ages by x, y, and
z, then xyz = 4590, and try to solve by guessing
and
15 •checking.
16 • 18 = 4320 No. This product is too
Review the solution small
15 • 16 • 19 = 4560 No. This product is too
small
Because 15 • 17 • 18 = 4590 and each of the ages
15 • 17 • 18the
represents = age
4590of a teenager,
Yes. This is the correct
therefore the
product
solution is correct.
 EXAMPLE 5
A hat and a jacket cost P100. The jacket costs p90 more than the
hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost of the jacket?

Understand the problem After reading the problem for the first time, you
may think that the jacket cost P90 and the hat cost
P10. The sum of these costs is P100, but the cost of
the jacket is only P90 more than the cost of the hat.
We need to find the two peso amounts that differ by
Devise a plan P90
Writeand
an whose
equationsum is P100.
using for the cost of the hat
and for the cost of the jacket: .

Carry out the plan

Review the solution The sum of the costs is P5 + P95 = P100, and the
cost of the jacket is P90 more than the cost of the
hat.
 EXAMPLE 6
One number is 7 more than another. Twice the larger is equal to
four times the smaller decreased by 2. Find the numbers.

Understand the problem We are looking for two numbers wherein one is 7
more than another, and twice the larger is equal
to four times the smaller decreased by 2.
Devise a plan

Carry out the plan

Review the solution 15 is 7 more than 8: twice 15, which is 30 is four

times less 2.
PROBLEM SOLVING
STRATEGIES
GUESS AND CHECK
When you are not sure how to start, guess an answer and then
check it. In the process of checking a guess, you me see a way of
revising your guess to get close to the answer to get the exact answer.
EXAMPLE
Glenda bought books and CD as gifts. Altogether she bought 12
gifts and spent P840. The books cost P60 each and the CD’s cost P90
each. How many of each gift did she buy?

Understand the problem:

P840 will be spent to buy 12 gifts. The gifts should be books and
CDs that cost P60 each and P90 each, respectively. It is to find out how
many books and CDs will be bought.

Devise the plan:

One method to solve this problem is to make reasonable guess
and then use the result to make a better guess until you get the right
number of books and CDs to be bought for P840.
EXAMPLE
Glenda bought books and CD as gifts. Altogether she bought 12 gifts and spent P840.
The books cost P60 each and the CD’s cost P90 each. How many of each gift did she buy?

Carry Out the Plan

We need to guess an answer, start in using the same number of books and CDs.

Guess 1 6 books Check: 6 x P60 = P360

6 CDs 6 x P90 = P540
P900

Revise your guess. You need fewer CDs to bring the total cost down.

Guess 2 7 books Check: 7 x P60 = P420

5 CDs 5 x P90 = P450
P870
EXAMPLE
Glenda bought books and CD as gifts. Altogether she bought 12 gifts and spent P840.
The books cost P60 each and the CD’s cost P90 each. How many of each gift did she buy?

Carry Out the Plan

We need to guess an answer, start in using the same number of books and CDs.

Guess 1 6 books Check: 6 x P60 = P360

6 CDs 6 x P90 = P540
P900

Revise your guess. You need fewer CDs to bring the total cost down.

Guess 2 7 books Check: 7 x P60 = P420

5 CDs 5 x P90 = P450
P870

Guess 3 8 books Check 8 x P60 = P480

4CDs 4 x P90 = P360
P840
Answer: Glenda bought 8 books and 4 CDs

Review the Solution

We have made 3 guesses. It was checked that 8 books will cost P480 and CDs will cost
P360 then the 12 gifts have a total cost of P840.
MAKE A TABLE AND LOOK FOR A PATTERN
Some problem describe relationships that involve regular sequence of number or
other things. To solve the problem you need to be able to recognize and describe the
pattern that gives the relationship for the numbers or things. One way to recognize the
information given is a make a table.
EXAMPLE
A tree farm is planted as shown at the right.
The dots represent trees.
The lot will be enlarged by adding larger squares.
How many trees will be the fifth squares?

Understand the problem

The distance between the two trees is 2ft. There are 4 trees the 1st square, 12 trees in
the 2nd square and 20 trees in the 3rd square. It is to find the number of trees to be planted
in the 5th square.

Devise a Plan
A table may help you see the relationship of the number of trees planted on each
square. Find the pattern and solve the problem.
EXAMPLE
A tree farm is planted as shown at the right. The dots represent trees. The lot will be
enlarged by adding larger squares. How many trees will be the fifth squares?

Carry out the Plan

Make table to help find the pattern

Square 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

position
Number 4 12 20
of trees

Pattern: 8 more trees are planted in each larger square.

EXAMPLE
A tree farm is planted as shown at the right. The dots represent trees. The lot will be
enlarged by adding larger squares. How many trees will be the fifth squares?

Review the solution

Since 8 more trees are planted in each larger square the 4th square will have 28 trees and
the 5th square will have 36 trees.

1st square : 4 trees

2nd square: 4+8=12 trees
3rd square: 12+8=20 trees
4th square: 20+8 = 28 trees
5th square: 28+8 = 36 trees
SOLVING A SIMILAR BUT SIMPLER PROBLEM
By solving one or more simpler problems you can often a pattern that will help solve a
more complicated problem.
EXAMPLE
How many different rectangles are in strip with 10 square?

Understand the Problem

There are 10 squares in the figure. We need to find out the number of rectangles in a
strip with 10 squares.

Devise a Plan
Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem. Begin with one square and
then add one square at a time. Determine whether there is a pattern.
EXAMPLE
How many different rectangles are in strip with 10 square?

Carry Out the Plan

Since we need to determine whether there is a pattern, we may first form a table
considering the number of square in a strip and the number of rectangles that can be
formed.

Square in 1 2 3 4 5
strip
Number of 1 3 6 10 15
rectangle
EXAMPLE
How many different rectangles are in strip with 10 square?

Carry Out the Plan

Square in 1 2 3 4 5
strip
Number of 1 3 6 10 15
rectangle
Pattern: 0+1 = 1 1+2=3 3 + 3= 6 6 + 4 = 10 10 +5 =15

Square in 6 7 8 9 10
strip
Number of 21 28 36 45 55
rectangle
Pattern: 15 + 6 =21 28 + 8 = 36 45+10 = 55 21+7=28
45+10=55

Answer: There are 55 rectangles in a strip 10 squares.

EXAMPLE
How many different rectangles are in strip with 10 square?

Review the solution

Since the pattern shows that the number of rectangles is equal to previous number of
rectangles plus the number of squares in strip, therefore 45 + 10 = 55 rectangles.
USE LOGICAL REASONING
Some problems can be solve without the use of numbers they can be solved by the use
of logical reasoning, given some information.
EXAMPLE
Carlo, Ferdies, Julie and Chong plays different sports. Their sport are running,
basketball, baseball and tennis. Julie’s sports does not use a ball. Carlo hit a home run in
his sport. Ferdie is the brother of the tennis player. Which sport does each play.

Understand the Problem

There are 4 people who play different sports. Given the information, we need to know
which sport of them plays.

Devise a Plan
Let us make a table and analyze which of them plays the given sports. Use logical
reasoning to complete the table. Mark 1 for playing and 0 for not playing.
EXAMPLE
Carlo, Ferdies, Julie and Chona plays different sports. Their sport are running,
basketball, baseball and tennis. Julie’s sports does not use a ball. Carlo hit a home run in
his sport. Ferdie is the brother of the tennis player. Which sport does each play.

Carry Out the Plan

Make a table to organize what you know.

Running Basketba Baseball Tennis Reason

ll
Carlo 0 0 1 0 A home run means Carlo plays
baseball.
Ferdie 0 1 0 0 Ferdie cannot be the Tennis player.
Julie 1 0 0 0 Julie must run since running does
not involve a ball.
Chong 0 0 0 1 The only option for Chong is tennis.
Answer: Chona’s plays baseball, Ferdie plays basketball, Julie’s runs, and Chona plays
tennis.
EXAMPLE
Candy, Ferdies, Julie and Chona plays different sports. Their sport are running,
basketball, baseball and tennis. Julie’s sports does not use a ball. Candy hit a home run in
his sport. Ferdie is the brother of the tennis player. Which sport does each play.

Review the Solution

Because of the reason given in the table, we prove that the answer are correct.
WORKING BACKWARDS
To solve some problems you need to start with the end result and work backward to
the beginning.
EXAMPLE
On Monday, Lenie withdraw P1,500 from her savings account. On Wednesday, she
deposited P4,000 into her account. She now has P10,000. How much was in her account on
Monday before she withdraw the money.

Understand the Problem

Understand the problem: we need to determine the amount of money on Lenie’s
savings account before the withdraw P1,500 on Monday.

Devise a Plan
Guessing the amount of money is one possible strategy but it requires to many
computation. Since we know the end result, let’s try the method of working backward.
EXAMPLE
On Monday, Lenie withdraw P1,500 from her savings account. On Wednesday, she
deposited P4,000 into her account. She now has P10,000. How much was in her account on
Monday before she withdraw the money.

Carry Out the Plan

Knowing the amount of money in the account now, we have to undo the deposit and
the withdrawal.

Money in the account now P10000

Undo the deposit -P4000
P6000

Undo the withdrawal +P1500

P7500

Answer: lenie had P7,500 in her account on Monday before withdrawing money.
EXAMPLE
On Monday, Lenie withdraw P1,500 from her savings account. On Wednesday, she
deposited P4,000 into her account. She now has P10,000. How much was in her account on
Monday before she withdraw the money.

Review the Solution

You know check the solution by biggening with P7,500, the amount of money in the
account before the withdrawal on Monday. The resulting amount must be P10000.

Money before the withdrawal P7500

Withdrawal -P1500
P6000

Deposit +P4000
P10000

Therefore the answer is correct.

MAKE AN ORGANIZED LIST
Making an organized list will lead you to work logically and systematically.
EXAMPLE
Michelle has 2 skirts: a black and blue skirt. She has 4 blouses: a white blouse, a
yellow blouse, a red blouse and pink blouse. How many different outfits can she put
together?

Understand the problem

We need to find the number of different outfits Michelle can put together out of her 2
skirts and 4 blouses.

Devise a Plan
Make an organized list to find the number of different outfits Michelle can put
together.
EXAMPLE
Michelle has 2 skirts: a black and blue skirt. She has 4 blouses: a white blouse, a
yellow blouse, a red blouse and pink blouse. How many different outfits can she put
together?

Carry Out the Plan

List the color of skirt at the left that will correspond to the color of blouse at the right
to see how many pairs can be made.

Answer: Michelle can make 8 different outfits.

Review the Solution

Go back to the list. After checking that all the data were listed completely, then we can say
that the answer is correct.
WRITE AND SOLVE EQUATION
Algebraic expression are use to represent information and solve problems. We used a
variable for the unknown quantity and express the given information in an equation.
EXAMPLE
The sum of two numbers is 51. If one number is twice the other, what are the
numbers?

Understand the Problem

We need to find two numbers whose sum is 51 and one number is twice the other.

Devise a Plan
Write an equation using x for one number and 2x for other number.
EXAMPLE
The sum of two numbers is 51. If one number is twice the other, what are the
numbers?
Review the Solution
Carry out the Plan Go back to the original equation and check by
Solve the above equation substituting the answer.

The sum of 17 and 34 is 51 and 34 is twice of 17.

Answer: The two numbers are 17 and 34. therefore, the answer is correct.
PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH PATTERNS
TERMS OF SEQUENCE
• An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. It also means an
ordered list of numbers. Each number in a sequence is called a term.

In the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, … we denote the terms as follows:
TERMS OF SEQUENCE
• What is the next term in the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
To answer this questions, we often construct a difference table.

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90 …
First differences 9 13 17 21 25
Second differences 4 4 4 4
TERMS OF SEQUENCE
• 2 7 24 59 118 207 332 499
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125 167
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36 42
Third differences 6 6 6 6 6
Nth – Term formula for a sequence
Find the first 5 terms of the sequence given the nth term.

_4__, __14_, _30__, _52__, ___80_

=4
= 3(4) 14
= 3(9) = 30
= 3(16) = 52
= 3(25) = 80
Nth – Term formula for a sequence
What is the nth term of the sequence 4, 10, 16, 22, 28, …?

=4 d =6
Nth – Term formula for a sequence
Assume the pattern shown by the
square tile in the following figures continues.

What is the nth term formula How many tiles are in the eight Which figures will
consist of
For the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence? Exactly
320 tiles?
Figure of the sequence?
320 = 3n-1
320+1 = 3n
321 = 3n
107= n
Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci sequence is the series of numbers such that the next number is found
by adding up the two numbers before it.

Where:
• is term number “n”
• is the previous term (n-1)
• is the term before that (n-2)
Fibonacci Sequence

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 …
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 …

Find the 10th term in the Fibonacci sequence. Find the 13th term in the Fibonacci sequence.

= 34 + 21 = 144 + 89
= 55 = 233
Fibonacci Number General Formula (Binet’s Formula)

1. Find the

= 233

2. Find the

= 75025
Properties of Fibonacci Numbers

Determine whether the statement for

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 …
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 14 23 37 …
4 3 7

5=6–1
5=5

Therefore the statement for is TRUE.

Properties of Fibonacci Numbers

If n is even, then is odd number.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 …
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 14 23 37 …
4 3 7
If n is 2, then is 1.
If n is 4, then is 3.
If n is 6, then is 8.

Thus the statement “if n is even, then is odd number” is FALSE

BASIC CONCEPTS IN
STATISTICS
STATISTICS
It is collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then
analyzing, interpreting and drawing conclusions based on the data.
BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS
 Data are the values that the variables can assume.
 A variable is a characteristics that is observable or measurable in every unit of universe.
 Population is set of all possible values of a variable.
 Sample is a subgroup of a population.
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Qualitative Variables
• Words or codes that represent a class or category.
• Express a categorical attribute
 Gender
 Religion
 Marital status
 Highest educational attainment
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Quantitative Variables
• Number that represent an amount or a count.
• Numerical data, sizes are meaningful and answer questions such as “how many” or “how
much”

 Height
 Weight
 Household size
 Number of registered cars
Quantitative Variables classified as:
 Discrete Variables
Data that can be counted
 Number of days
 Number of siblings
 Usual number of text messages sent in day
 Usual daily allowance in school

 Continuous Variables
It can assume all values between any two specific values like 0.5, 1.2, etc. and data
that can be measured.
 Weight
 Height
 Body temperature
Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal Level
This is characteristics by data that consists of names, labels, or categories only.
 Gender
 Most preferred color
 Usual sleeping time
 Civil status
Levels of Measurement

1. Ordinal Level
This involves data that arranged in some order, but differences between data.
 Happiness index for the day
 Highest educational attainment
 The ranking of tennis player
 Academic Excellence Awards
Levels of Measurement

1. Interval Level
This is the same in ordinal level, with an additional property that we can determine
meaningful amounts of differences between the data.
 Body temperature
 Intelligence Quotient
Levels of Measurement

1. Ratio Level
• This is an interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point.
• It possesses a meaningful absolute, fixed zero point and allows all arithmetic
operations.
 Number of siblings
 weight
FOUR BASIC METHOD OF SAMPLING
• Random Sampling - this done by using chance or random numbers.

• Systematic Sampling – this is done by numbering each subject of the population and then
selecting nth number.

• Stratified Sampling – if a population has a distinct groups, it is possible to divide the

population into these groups and to draw SRS’s from each the groups

• Cluster Sampling – This method uses intact groups called clusters.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY OF
UNGROUPED DATA
MEAN
The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. When we speak of
average, we always refer to the mean.
EXAMPLE
1. Six friends in a biology of 20 students receives test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and
90. Find the mean of these test scores.

= = 82.5
EXAMPLE
2. The ages of five contestants in Statistics Quiz Bee are the following: 18, 17, 18, 19,
and 18. Find their average age.
EXAMPLE
2. The ages of five contestants in Statistics Quiz Bee are the following: 18, 17, 18, 19,
and 18. Find their average age.

= = 18
MEDIAN
The median is the midpoint of the data array. Before finding this value, the data must
be arranged in order, from least to greatest or vice-versa. The median will either be a
specific value or will fall between two values.

,
EXAMPLE
Seven mothers were selected and given a blood pressure check. Their blood pressure
were recorded below.

135, 121, 119, 116, 130, 121, 131

Find the median

Solution: arrange the data in order.

116, 119, 121, 121, 130, 131, 135

=121
EXAMPLE
Eight novels were randomly selected and the numbers of pages were recorded as
follows:

415, 398, 402, 400, 420, 407, 415, 425

Find the median

Solution: arrange the data in order.

398, 400, 402, 407, 415, 415, 420, 425

= 411
MODE
• It is value that occurs most often in the data set.
• The number/ value/ observation in a data set which appears the most number of times.
EXAMPLE
Find the mode of the given data set 15, 28, 25, 48, 22, 43, 39, 44, 43, 49, 34, 22, 33, 27, 25,
22, and 30.

Arrange the data set in ascending or descending order.

15, 22, 22, 22, 25, 25, 27, 28, 30, 33, 34, 39, 43, 43, 44, 48, 49.

In the given data, the number that appeared the most number of times is 22. The data is
said to be unimodal.
EXAMPLE
The speed of ten stenographers in typing per minute are follows: 121, 110, 120, 119,
112, 121, 118, 115, 107, 115.

107, 110, 112, 115, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 121

Thus the data set has two modes: 115 and 121. The data set is said to be bimodal.
EXAMPLE
Find the mode of the given data 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23.

There is no mode.
EXERCISE:

1. Ten students got the following grade in mathematics 83, 70, 95, 90, 88, 96, 90, 90, 75
and 85
A. Find the average grades.
B. Find the median
C. Find the mode

2. The age of 8 students in Ms. Crisa class are 18, 16, 19, 15, 17, 18, 16, and 21.
D. Find the mean
E. Find the median
F. Find the mode
THE WEIGHTED MEAN
The weighted mean of the numbers with the respective assigned weights is

Where
- is the sum of the products formed by multiplying each number by its assigned
weight.
- is the sum of all weights.
EXAMPLE
Many colleges use the 4-point grading system
A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F=0. Find the grade point average of Dillon’s grades, in the
given semester course grade.

Course Grade Units

English B 4 =

History A 3 Dillon’s GPA for the given semester is 2.5

Chemist D 3
ry
Algebra C 4
EXERCISE

1. Mia’s report card is shown below. Use weighted mean to compute her grade point
average. Grade point values are 4 for A, 3 for B, and C for 2.

CLASS GRADE CREDITS

Mathematics A4 3
Filipino B3 4
English A4 4
History C2 3
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution, which is a table that list observed events and the
frequency occurrence of each observed event, is often used to organized raw
data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution, which is a table that list observed events and the
frequency occurrence of each observed event, is often used to organized raw
data.
Number of Computer per
Household
Number of Number of
2 0 3 1 2 1 0 4 Computers Households
Frequency
Distribution x f
2 1 1 7 2 0 1 1 0 5
1 12
0 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 14
3 3
1 4 2 5 2 3 1 2
4 2
5 3
2 1 2 1 5 0 2 5
6 0
7 1
Find the mean of the data N = 40
Number of Computer per Number of Number of
Household Computers Households
2 0 3 1 2 1 0 4 x f
2 1 1 7 2 0 1 1 0 5
Frequency
0 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 Distribution 1 12
2 14
1 4 2 5 2 3 1 2 3 3
2 1 2 1 5 0 2 5 4 2
5 3
Find the mean of the data 6 0
7 1
N = 40

The mean number of computers per household is 2.

Exercise

1. Distance of Bike Riders (miles). Find the mean from frequency

data
Distance (miles) Frequency
x f
5 2
6 0
7 6
8 5
9 3
10 1
11 0
12 3
13 1
MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY OF GROUPED
DATA
MEAN MEDIAN MODE

Where: Where:
Where: - total frequencies - lower boundaries of
- the product of - lower boundaries of modal class
frequency and class median class - difference of the
mark. - frequency of modal class and the
- total frequencies. median class class preceding it.
- cumulative - difference of the
frequency modal class and the
before/preceding the class succeeding it.
median class.
Example:
Compute the mean, median and mode of the scores of the students in a
basic statistics.
Scores Frequency Lower Class Mark fx Cumulative
(f) boundaries (x) frequency
(lb) (cf)
11 – 15 1 10.5 13 13 1
16 – 20 2 15.5 18 36 3
21 – 25 5 20.5 23 115 8
26 – 30 11 25.5 28 308 19
31 – 35 12 30.5 33 396 31
36 – 40 11 35.5 38 418 42
41 - 45 5 40.5 43 215 47
46 - 50 1 45.5 48 48 48
N = 48 fx = 1,549
 Mean
Scores Frequency fx
(f)
11 – 15 1 13
16 – 20 2 36
= 1549
21 – 25 5 115
N = 48
26 – 30 11 308
31 – 35 12 396
36 – 40 11 418
41 - 45 5 215
46 - 50 1 48
N = 48 fx = 1,549

Where:
- the product of frequency and class mark.
- total frequencies.
 MEDIAN

Scores Frequency Lower Cumulative

(f) boundaries frequency
(lb) (cf) =
11 – 15 1 10.5 1
16 – 20 2 15.5 3 = 30.5
21 – 25 5 20.5 8 = 12
26 – 30 11 25.5 19
31 – 35 12 30.5 31
36 – 40 11 35.5 42
41 - 45 5 40.5 47
46 - 50 1 45.5 48
N = 48

Where:
- total frequencies
- lower boundaries of median class
- frequency of median class
- cumulative frequency before/preceding the median
class.
 MODE

Scores Frequency Lower

(f) boundaries
(lb) = 30.5
11 – 15 1 10.5 = 5
16 – 20 2 15.5 = 1
21 – 25 5 20.5 = 1
26 – 30 11 25.5
31 – 35 12 30.5
36 – 40 11 35.5
41 - 45 5 40.5
46 - 50 1 45.5
N = 48

Where:
- lower boundaries of modal class
- difference of the modal class and the class
preceding it.
- difference of the modal class and the class
succeeding it.
Exercise
Compute the mean, median and mode of the grades of the students
calculus.
Grade Frequency Lower Class Mark fx Cumulative
(f) boundaries (x) frequency
(lb) (cf)
40 – 49 3
50 – 59 5
60 – 69 6
60 – 79 9
80 – 89 8
90 – 99 7