DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING

2. Physical Layer

Presented by:
Dr. Sachin Agrawal
ECE Department
 Outline
• Introduction

• Basis for Data Communication

• Guided Transmission Media

• Wireless Transmission Medium

• Circuit Switching and Telephone Network

• High Speed Digital Access

 1. Introduction
In this chapter we will look at the lowest layer in our protocol model, the physical
layer. It defines the electrical, timing and other interfaces by which bits are sent as
signals over channels.

The physical layer is the foundation on which the network is built. The properties of
different kinds of physical channels determine the performance (e.g., throughput,
latency, and error rate).

We will begin with a theoretical analysis of data transmission. Then we will cover two
kinds of transmission media: guided (copper wire and fiber optics), and wireless
(terrestrial radio). Each of these technologies has different properties that affect the
design and performance of the networks that use them.

Finally, we will look at an examples of communication systems used in practice for

wide area computer networks: the (fixed) telephone system.
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 2. Basis for Data Communication
Information can be transmitted on wires by varying some physical property such as voltage or
current. By representing the value of this voltage or current as a single-valued function of time,
f(t), we can model the behavior of the signal and analyze it mathematically

2.1 Fourier Analysis

In the early 19th century, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier proved that any
reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with period T can be constructed as the sum of a
(possibly infinite) number of sines and cosines:

where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency, an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the
nth harmonics (terms), and c is a constant. Such a decomposition is called a Fourier series. From
the Fourier series, the function can be reconstructed; that is, if the period, T, is known and the
amplitudes are given, the original function of time can be found.

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 2. Basis for Data Communication
2.2 Signals

Definition: Signals are physical representations of data used for communication. They
can be analog or digital. Analog signals are continuous and can take an infinite number
of values within a range, such as the hands of an analog clock. Digital signals are
discrete, taking on a limited number of values, like the changing digits on a digital
clock.

Periodic vs. Nonperiodic Signals: Signals can be periodic, repeating a pattern at

regular intervals, or nonperiodic, changing without a repeating pattern. Periodic
signals include simple sine waves (with a consistent pattern) and composite signals
(made up of multiple sine waves). Nonperiodic signals do not repeat and are often used
to represent varying data.

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 2. Basis for Data Communication
2.2 Signals

Key Parameters:
Period and Frequency: The period (T) is the time required to complete one
cycle of a signal, measured in seconds. Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per
second, measured in Hertz (Hz). They are inversely related: 𝑓=1/T and 𝑇=1/f​.

Wavelength: Wavelength (𝜆λ) is the distance over which the signal's shape
repeats. It can be calculated using the speed of light (c) and frequency (f): 𝜆=𝑐𝑓​.
Wavelengths are typically measured in micrometers (µm).Composite Signals:
Composite signals combine multiple sine waves of different frequencies, amplitudes,
and phases. The bandwidth of a composite signal is the range of frequencies it
occupies, calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies (
𝐵=𝑓𝐻−𝑓L ).

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 2. Basis for Data Communication
2.3 Data transfer Rate:

1. Digital Signal Characteristics:

Bit Rate: Measures the number of bits transmitted per second. It's a key
metric for digital signals, expressed in bits per second (bps). For example, a signal with
a bit rate of 1 Mbps transmits 1 million bits every second.

Bit Length: Represents the physical distance a single bit occupies on a

transmission medium. Calculated as:
Bit Length=Propagation Speed×Bit Duration.
This is crucial for determining the necessary bandwidth. Faster bit rates
require more bandwidth.

2. Data Rate Limits

Nyquist Bit Rate: For noiseless channels, the maximum bit rate is given
by:
5
Bit Rate=2×Bandwidth×log⁡2(𝐿) where L is the number of signal levels.
Increasing signal levels can improve bit rate but may reduce reliability.
 2. Basis for Data Communication
2.3 Data transfer Rate:

Shannon Capacity: For noisy channels, the maximum data rate is:
Capacity=Bandwidth×log⁡2(1+SNR) where SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio. This
formula reflects the channel's capacity to handle noise.

3. Throughput and Data Transfer Rate

Throughput: Actual rate at which data is transmitted over a network, always
less than or equal to the bandwidth. Influenced by factors such as network
congestion, user load, bandwidth allocation, and device performance.

Data Transfer Rate (DTR): Calculated as:

DTR=Actual Data Transferred in Bits/Time Taken in Seconds
Actual Data Transferred in Bits​Provides a measure of efficiency in data
transmission.

These concepts are fundamental for understanding how data is transmitted, the limits
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of data transfer rates, and the impact of various factors on network performance.
 3. Guided Transmission Media
Transmission media is nothing but the physical layer or medium. The physical layer is
to transport bits from one machine to another. Various physical media can be used for

✓ Guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics

the actual transmission. Media are roughly grouped into TWO types.

✓ Unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

There are five types in guided media

1) Magnetic Media
2) Twisted Pairs
3) Coaxial Cable
4) Power Lines
5) Fiber Optics

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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.1 Magnetic Media

The most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is
to write them
onto magnetic tape or removable media. Physically transport the tape or
disks to the destination
machine, and read them back in again. A simple calculation will make this
point clear.

An industry-standard Ultrium tape can hold 800 gigabytes. A box 60 × 60 ×

60 cm can hold about 1000 of these tapes, for a total capacity of 800
terabytes, or 6400 terabits (6.4 petabits). A box of tapes can be delivered
anywhere in the United States in 24 hours by Federal Express and other
companies. 8

It is more cost effective, especially for applications in which high bandwidth

 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.2 Twisted Pairs
Material: Uses metallic (copper) conductors to transmit signals as electric currents.

Structure: Comprises two insulated copper wires twisted together, with one wire
carrying the signal and the other serving as a ground reference.

Types of Twisted Pair Cables:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Fig. 2.1 Twisted pair cable

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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.2 Twisted Pairs
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Description: Two insulated copper wires twisted together without additional

shielding.

Advantages:
Easy installation
Flexible and cost-effective
Supports high-speed transmission (up to 100 meters)
Common in LAN technologies like Ethernet

Disadvantages:
Lower bandwidth compared to coaxial cables
Less effective against interference

Applications: Widely used in telephone lines and local area networks (e.g., 10Base-
10

T, 100Base-T).
 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.2 Twisted Pairs
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Description: Similar to UTP but with a metal foil or braided-mesh covering each
pair of conductors to prevent electromagnetic noise.

Advantages:
Reduces electromagnetic interference and crosstalk
Suitable for both analog and digital transmission
Higher capacity and improved signaling rates compared to UTP

Disadvantages:
More difficult to manufacture
Heavier

Applications: Used in telephone lines for voice and data, and in DSL lines for high-
speed connections. 11
 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.3 Coaxial Cable

Another common transmission medium is the coaxial cable. Two kinds of coaxial
cable are widely used. One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is
intended for digital transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is
commonly used for analog transmission and cable television.

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an

insulating material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a
closely woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective
plastic sheath.

The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of
high
bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.

Fig 2.2 Coaxial Cable 12

 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.4 Power lines
• Power lines are primarily used for delivering electrical power to homes.
• They can also be used for data communication both within homes and for
broadband access.
• The idea of using power lines for communication isn’t new – used for remote
metering and device control (e.g., X10 standard).

Advantages:
Convenience: No additional wiring required. Devices can transmit and
receive data simply by plugging into an electrical outlet.
Example: TVs and receivers can stream movies over electrical wiring.
Both power signal and data signal are transmitted over the same electrical wires.

Fig. 2.3 A network that uses household electrical wiring. 13

 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.4 Power lines
• Challenges:
Wiring is designed for power signals, not data.
Power signals: 50–60 Hz.
Data signals: Higher MHz frequencies needed.
Signal attenuation: High-frequency data signals are weakened by the wiring.
Interference: Wiring picks up external signals and radiates its own.
Electrical noise: Appliances turning on/off create noise over a wide frequency
range.
Regulatory limits: Must avoid licensed frequencies (e.g., amateur radio bands).

• Overcoming Challenges:
Despite challenges, it’s possible to achieve data rates of 100 Mbps or more.
Advanced communication schemes:
Resist impaired frequencies.
Handle bursts of errors. 14
International standards for power-line networking are under development.
 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics
Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission, high-speed LANs, and high-speed
internet access (e.g., Fiber to the Home, FttH).

Three key components:

Light source
Transmission medium (optical fiber)
Detector (electrical pulse generator)

Advantages of Fiber Optics:

Higher bandwidth compared to copper.
Long-distance transmission: 100 Gbps for 100 km without amplification.
Immune to electromagnetic interference and environmental factors (e.g.,
power surges, chemicals).
Lightweight: Easier to install and maintain.
Secure: Difficult to tap.
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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics
Principle of Operation:
Light pulses represent binary data:
Pulse of light = 1 bit.
Absence of light = 0 bit.
Total internal reflection traps light inside the fiber for long-distance
transmission.
Multimode fibers allow many rays to bounce inside.
Single-mode fibers: Straight-line propagation for longer distances and higher
speeds.

Fig. 2.4 (a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber
impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles. (b) Light 16
trapped by total internal reflection.
 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics
Light Sources and Detectors
Light Sources:
LEDs (for short distances, multi-mode fiber).
Semiconductor lasers (for long distances, single-mode fiber).
Detectors:
Photodiodes convert light signals to electrical pulses at the receiving end.

Attenuation and Dispersion

Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance (measured in dB/km).
Different wavelength bands are used (0.85μ, 1.30μ, 1.55μ bands).
Chromatic dispersion: Spreading of light pulses, managed by special pulse shapes
(solitons) to minimize distortion.

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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics

Fig. 2.5 Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.

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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics
Fiber Cables
Structure of a fiber:
Core: Thin glass (8–50 microns).
Cladding: Surrounds the core, with a lower refractive index.
Jacket: Plastic layer for protection.
Fibers are bundled together and protected by an outer sheath.

Fig. 2.6 (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
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 3. Guided Transmission Media
3.5 Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic Connections
Connector-based: Easy reconfiguration, but 10-20% light loss.
Mechanical splicing: Carefully aligned fiber ends with around 10% light loss.
Fusion splicing: Melting two fibers for a nearly seamless connection, with
minimal attenuation.

Fiber Optics vs Copper Wire

1. Higher Bandwidth & Lower Attenuation: Fiber optics support much
higher data rates and need fewer repeaters (every 50 km) compared to copper (every
5 km), leading to cost savings.
2. Environmental Resistance: Fiber is immune to power surges, EMI, and
corrosive chemicals, making it ideal for harsh environments.
3. Lightweight & Space-Efficient: Fiber is lighter and thinner than copper,
reducing installation complexity and enabling more capacity in existing ducts.
4. Security: Fiber optics are difficult to tap, ensuring better security for
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sensitive data transmissions.
5. Challenges: Higher costs, specialized skills required, and fragility are the
main drawbacks of fiber compared to copper.
 4. Wireless Transmission Medium
4.1 Introduction to Wireless Transmission Medium
Definition: Wireless communication involves transmitting electromagnetic waves
without a physical conductor.

Types: Ground propagation, Sky propagation, and Line-of-Sight propagation.

Applications: Broadcasting, communication across large distances, mobile phones,

and satellite communication.

Ground, Sky, and Line-of-Sight Propagation

1. Ground Propagation: Low-frequency waves travel close to the Earth's surface.
Distance depends on signal power.

2. Sky Propagation: Higher frequency signals reflected by the ionosphere back to

Earth. Covers greater distances with lower power.
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3. Line-of-Sight Propagation: Very high-frequency signals travel in straight lines
between antennas. Requires direct visibility, often limited by Earth's curvature.
 4. Wireless Transmission Medium
4.2 Radio Waves

Frequency Range: 3 kHz – 1 GHz.

Omnidirectional: Signals broadcast in all directions.

Receiver antenna doesn’t need alignment with transmitter.

Advantages:
Long-distance transmission (e.g., AM radio).
Can penetrate walls (useful indoors).

Disadvantages: Fig. 2.7 (a) In the VLF, LF,

Susceptible to interference. and MF bands, radio waves
Low data rate due to narrow bandwidth. follow the curvature of the
earth. (b) In the HF band,
they bounce off the 22

ionosphere.
 4. Wireless Transmission Medium
4.3. Microwaves
Frequency Range: 1 GHz – 300 GHz.

Unidirectional: Requires aligned antennas for transmission.

Characteristics:
Line-of-sight transmission.
High data rates possible.
Cannot penetrate walls.

Applications: Satellite communication, wireless LANs, point-to-point

communication.

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 4. Wireless Transmission Medium
4.4 Infrared Waves

Frequency Range: 300 GHz – 400 THz.

Short-range:
Cannot penetrate walls.
Reduces interference between devices in separate rooms.

Line-of-Sight: Devices must be pointed directly at each other.

Applications: Wireless keyboards, mice, remote controls.

High data rate transmission up to 4 Mbps.

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 4. Wireless Transmission Medium
4.5 Comparison of Wireless Media

Media Frequency Direction Applications

Range
Radio Waves 3 kHz – 1 GHz Omnidirectional AM/FM radio,
TV, cordless
phones
Microwaves 1 GHz – 300 GHz Unidirectional Satellite,
wireless LANs

Infrared Waves 300 GHz – 400 Unidirectional Remote controls,

THz short-range data
transmission

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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.1 Introduction to Switching Network
Switching is the process of routing data or voice signals through various network
paths to ensure they reach the intended destination.

Purpose of Switching: Switching efficiently directs data in networks, whether

through telephony systems or internet data transmission.

Two Main Types of Switching:

Circuit Switching – The traditional method used in telephone networks.
Packet Switching – Used in modern data networks (e.g., the Internet, Voice
over IP).

Importance of Switching: Enables effective communication by managing the

transmission of signals across large, complex networks.

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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.1 Introduction to Switching Network

Fig. 2.8 (a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching. 27

 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching Network
Definition: Circuit switching establishes a dedicated physical path between the
sender and receiver before communication starts. This path remains exclusive to that
connection until the call ends.

Traditional Telephony: This method has been the backbone of telephone systems
for over a century. When a call is made, the network sets up a specific path for the
entire duration of the call.

Example: When you dial a phone number, the network creates a direct line from
your phone to the recipient’s phone, ensuring a continuous connection for the
duration of the call.

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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching
Network
How Circuit Switching Works

Step 1: Setup: A connection is established across multiple switching offices (nodes)

in the network. The system "hunts" for a continuous physical path from the caller to
the receiver.

Step 2: Dedicated Path: Once a path is set, it remains reserved exclusively for that
call, even if no data is being transmitted at some points (such as during pauses in a
conversation).

Step 3: Communication: The caller and receiver can now communicate in real time
with no additional delays, as the path is already established.

Step 4: Termination: After the call is finished, the path is released, and the system
makes it available for new connections.
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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching Network
Key Characteristics of Circuit Switching

Dedicated Path: A fixed, reserved path is established between two endpoints before
communication begins.

Connection Setup Time: There is a delay (up to 10 seconds for long-distance calls)
between dialing and the call being connected, as the system searches for an
available path.

Continuous Transmission: Once the connection is made, the communication is

seamless with no additional delays, except for the physical signal propagation time
(around 5 milliseconds per 1000 km).

No Congestion Once Connected: Once the circuit is established, the connection is

exclusive to the communicating parties, so there is no interference or congestion30
during the conversation.
 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching Network
Advantages of Circuit Switching

1. Dedicated Connection: The path is reserved for the entire duration of the call,
ensuring no interruptions or slowdowns due to network congestion.

2. Predictable Performance: Since the entire bandwidth is allocated to one

communication, there is no competition for resources once the connection is
established, leading to consistent performance.

3. Low Latency: After the path is set up, there is almost no delay, with only signal
propagation time (based on the distance) affecting performance.

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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching
Network
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

1. Inefficient Use of Resources: While the circuit is reserved, it is not always

actively used. For instance, during pauses in a conversation, the reserved
bandwidth remains idle, which wastes network resources.

2. Setup Time: The time taken to establish a circuit can be slow for real-time
applications (e.g., several seconds for long-distance calls), which can be
problematic for services like credit card verification or modern internet
communications.

3. Limited Scalability: Circuit switching is less flexible for large-scale data

transmission because it requires a physical path for each communication, making it
difficult to handle the high volumes of data traffic seen in modern networks.
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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.2 Circuit Switching Network
Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching:
Used primarily in traditional telephone networks.
Establishes a dedicated path before communication starts.
Continuous communication with no delays after the connection is
established.
Requires large infrastructure to ensure dedicated paths.

Packet Switching (e.g., used in Internet Protocol (IP) networks):

Data is broken down into packets and sent independently through the
network.
More efficient for data transmission as the same resources can be used for
multiple users.
No need to reserve a dedicated path, and data can take multiple routes to 33
reach its destination.
 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.3 Telephone Network Network
The telephone network, often referred to as the Plain Old Telephone System (POTS),
originated in the late 1800s and was designed to carry analog voice signals. Over
time, it evolved to accommodate both voice and data, transitioning to a blend of
analog and digital systems.

Components of the Telephone Network:

1. Local Loops: The local loop is the physical connection (typically twisted-pair
copper wires) between the subscriber’s telephone and the nearest end office or local
central office. Local loops have a bandwidth of 4000 Hz (4 kHz) when used for voice.

2. Trunks: Trunks are the high-capacity transmission media that connect various
switching offices, capable of carrying multiple calls simultaneously through
multiplexing. Typically, these use optical fiber or satellite links.

3. Switching Offices: Switching offices connect multiple local loops and trunks,
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allowing dynamic connections between different subscribers without a permanent
physical link. Different levels include end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices.
 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.3 Telephone Network Network

Fig. 2.9 A telephone system

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 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.3 Telephone Network
Network
Circuit Switching in the Telephone Network
Circuit switching is the primary technique used by traditional telephone networks.
The core idea is to establish a dedicated, physical path between the caller and
receiver for the duration of the call.

Call Setup: When a call is initiated, the switching equipment in the telephone
network locates a path between the calling and receiving parties. This process
involves establishing an end-to-end connection before any voice or data can be
transmitted. Once established, this dedicated path remains reserved exclusively for
the call until it is terminated.

Guaranteed Bandwidth: Since a physical connection is set up, the allocated

bandwidth for the call remains reserved, ensuring consistent quality and reliability.
There is no risk of congestion, which is why busy signals only occur if no path can be
found during the setup process.
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Relation to Trunks and Local Loops: In this system, the local loop connects the
subscriber to the nearest end office, while the trunks carry the call over long
 5. Circuit Switching and Telephone
5.3 Telephone Network Network
Transition to Digital Services:
Although originally analog, modern telephone networks have increasingly
transitioned to digital systems, improving signal quality and enabling data services.
For example, Digital Data Service (DDS) allows subscribers to transmit data at
higher speeds compared to analog.

Comparison with Packet Switching:

Unlike packet switching, which breaks data into packets and routes them
dynamically through the network, circuit switching maintains a constant path for
the entire duration of the communication. Packet switching, as used in modern
networks like the internet, allows multiple users to share the same network
bandwidth more efficiently but may introduce delays due to congestion.

The telephone network evolved over time, initially using analog technology and now
supporting digital signals and data transfer. While modern communication systems 37
have shifted toward packet-switching for internet and data services, the telephone
network still uses circuit switching for traditional voice calls. This provides reliable,
Thank You