DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING
1. Introduction To Data Communication And
Networking

Presented by:
Dr. Sachin Agrawal
ECE Department
 Outline

• Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

• Uses of Computer Networks

• Network Hardware

• Network Software

• Internet Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP)

 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking
1.1 Introduction

Data Communication:
The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Networking:
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. A link can
be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.

Why it’s important: Data communication and networking underpin almost every 1
aspect of modern life, from personal communication to global commerce.
 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking
1.2 Components of Data Communication
Systems:

Fig. 1.1 Five Components of Data Communication

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 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking
1.2 Components of Data Communication Systems:

1. Message:
The information or data being communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender:
The device that sends the data message.
Examples include a computer, workstation, telephone handset, or video camera.

3. Receiver:
The device that receives the data message.
Examples include a computer, workstation, telephone handset, or television.

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 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking
1.2 Components of Data Communication Systems:

4. Transmission Medium:
The path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol:
A set of rules governing data communication.
Ensures devices can communicate effectively, defining how data is transmitted.

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 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
1.3 Data Flow: Networking

Fig 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex) 5

 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
1.3 Data Flow: Networking
1. Simplex:
Unidirectional communication (one-way).
One device transmits, and the other only receives.
Example: Keyboards (input only), Monitors (output only).
The entire channel capacity is used to send data in one direction.

2. Half-Duplex:
Bidirectional communication, but not at the same time.
Only one device can transmit while the other receives.
Example: Walkie-talkies, CB radios.
The entire channel is used alternately by both devices, like a one-lane road.

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 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
1.3 Data Flow: Networking
3. Full-Duplex:
Bidirectional communication simultaneously.
Both devices can transmit and receive at the same time.
Example: Telephone network.
Signals share the channel capacity, either using two separate transmission paths or by
dividing the channel’s bandwidth.

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 2. Uses of Computer Networks
2.1 Business Applications

• Resource Sharing: Businesses use computer networks to share resources like

printers, files, and software. This improves efficiency and reduces costs by
avoiding the need for duplicate resources in different departments.

• Client-Server Model: In a client-server model, servers host resources (like

databases, applications, or files) and clients (computers or devices) access these
resources over the network. This model helps centralize management and access
control.

• E-commerce: Businesses use networks to conduct online transactions, manage

inventory, and run websites. Major e-commerce platforms (like Amazon) rely on
networks to operate smoothly, from customer orders to shipping logistics.
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 2. Uses of Computer Networks
2.2 Home Applications

• Access to Information: At home, people use networks to browse the internet,

access educational content, and read news. The network connects their device to
information on servers around the world.

• Communication: Email, video calls (e.g., Zoom, Skype), and social media
platforms like WhatsApp and Facebook rely on networks to enable real-time
communication across long distances.

• Entertainment: Services like Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify use networks to

stream media, allowing people to watch movies or listen to music instantly from
their devices.

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 2. Uses of Computer Networks
2.3 Mobile Users

• Wireless Connectivity: Mobile users access networks via wireless technologies

such as Wi-Fi, 3G, 4G, and now 5G. These networks allow devices like
smartphones, tablets, and laptops to connect to the internet without physical
cables, enabling mobility. This allows users to browse the web, send messages,
and access cloud-based services from virtually any location.

• Access to Information and Services: With mobile networks, users can instantly
access services like email, online banking, and GPS navigation. They also use apps
and the internet to stay connected through social media, streaming, and video
calls. The convenience of being able to access vast amounts of information and
services while on the move is a major benefit.

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 2. Uses of Computer Networks
2.4 Social issues

• Privacy: Networks can expose personal information to hackers or unauthorized

parties if not secured properly. Ensuring data privacy is critical, especially when
dealing with sensitive information like passwords, banking details, or private
messages.

• Security: Malware (viruses, ransomware) and hacking attempts are threats to

network security. Secure protocols like SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) help protect
users from these threats by encrypting data transmitted over networks.

• Regulation: Governments are increasingly involved in regulating how data is

shared online to protect privacy, prevent cybercrime, and manage digital
transactions.
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 3. Network Hardware
3.1 Transmission Technology

Fig 1.3 Classification of interconnected processors by scale

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 3. Network Hardware
3.1 Transmission Technology

• Point-to-Point Links: These links connect individual pairs of devices directly. In

point-to-point networks, packets may need to travel through one or more
intermediate devices before reaching their destination. This type of transmission is
known as unicasting, where there is exactly one sender and one receiver. Routing
and finding the most efficient path are important aspects of point-to-point
networks.

• Broadcast Links: In broadcast networks, all devices share a single

communication channel. Any data packet sent by one device is received by all the
others on the network. However, only the device for which the packet is intended
will process it, while others ignore it. A common example of this is a wireless
network, where multiple devices share the same frequency range.
1. Broadcasting: This is when a packet is sent to all devices on the network, and
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all machines process the packet.
2. Multicasting: This allows data to be sent to a subset of devices on the
network, instead of just one or all devices.
 3. Network Hardware
3.2 Network types by scale:
• Personal Area Networks (PANs):
PANs connect devices over a small physical area, typically within a few meters.
They are used for personal devices like computers, keyboards, mice, and
smartphones. An example of PAN technology is Bluetooth, which allows devices to
communicate wirelessly over short distances. Bluetooth uses a master-slave
configuration, where one device (the master) manages the network and
communicates with other devices (the slaves). This eliminates the need for cables,
offering ease of setup for users.

• Local Area Networks (LANs):

LANs cover small areas such as a single building or campus. They are commonly
used to connect computers within offices, schools, and homes. LANs provide high
data transfer speeds and often use wired connections like Ethernet, but wireless
LANs (Wi-Fi) are also widely used.
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• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs):
MANs cover larger geographic areas, such as a city or a large campus. They are
 3. Network Hardware
3.2 Network types by scale:

• Wide Area Networks (WANs):

WANs cover vast areas, such as countries or even continents. The most well-
known example of a WAN is the internet, which connects billions of devices
worldwide. WANs often rely on leased telecommunication lines and satellite links.

• Internetworks:
When two or more networks are connected, they form an internetwork. The most
notable example is the Internet, a global network connecting millions of devices.
Internetworking allows seamless communication between different types of
networks. In the future, we may see even larger internetworks, such as the
proposed Interplanetary Internet, which aims to connect networks across space.

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 4. Network Software
4.1 Introduction

• Early network designs prioritized hardware over software.

• Modern networks focus heavily on structured software.

• Software structuring simplifies network design and supports layered protocols

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 4. Network Software
4.2 Protocol Hierarchies

Network Layering Concept:

Networks are structured using a hierarchy of layers, with each layer built upon the
one below it. This approach reduces design complexity by defining clear roles for
each layer and allowing them to interact through well-defined interfaces. Each layer
offers specific services to the layer above while concealing the underlying
implementation details. This is akin to the concept of information hiding found in
software engineering, where internal workings are kept hidden to simplify usage and
integration.

Protocols and Communication:

At each layer, protocols dictate how communication should occur. A protocol is
essentially an agreement on the rules and conventions used for exchanging data
between layers. Each layer communicates with its peer layer on another machine
using these agreed-upon protocols. Data flows through the network, moving down17
from higher layers to the physical medium, and then back up to higher layers at the
destination.
 4. Network Software
4.2 Protocol Hierarchies

Layer Interaction and Interfaces:

Data does not move directly from one layer to the corresponding layer on another
machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information down to the layer
below until it reaches the physical medium. The interfaces between layers define the
operations and services each layer provides to the layer above. These interfaces are
crucial for ensuring that layers can be replaced or modified independently, as long as
they adhere to the specified interface.

Practical Examples:
Consider the philosopher-translator-secretary analogy. Here, a philosopher (layer 5)
communicates a message through multiple layers: a translator (layer 2) and a
secretary (layer 1). The message is translated and transmitted, showcasing how each
layer adds or modifies information. In a technical context, data is segmented by layer
4, further processed by layer 3, and finally transmitted physically by layer 1. At the
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destination, the data is reassembled as it ascends through the layers, with each layer
stripping off its specific headers and trailers. This hierarchical approach simplifies
the network design, making it more manageable and flexible.
 4. Network Software
4.2 Protocol Hierarchies

Fig. 1.4 Layers, Protocols, and Interfaces 19

 4. Network Software
4.3 Design Issues in Network Layers

1. Reliability
Error Detection: Uses codes to identify and detect errors in data.
Error Correction: Adds redundant information to recover from errors.
Implementation: Applied at low layers (link) and high layers (application).

2. Routing and Path Selection

Pathfinding: Determines viable paths for data through the network.
Dynamic Routing: Adapts to network changes and failures (e.g., rerouting via
alternative paths).

3. Evolution and Growth

Protocol Layering: Supports network expansion by dividing tasks and hiding
implementation details.
Integration: Facilitates adding new designs to existing networks. 20
 4. Network Software
4.3 Design Issues in Network Layers

4. Addressing and Naming

Addressing: Identifies data senders and receivers at lower layers.
Naming: Manages network entities and services at higher layers.

5. Internetworking
Message Handling: Manages varying network capabilities like message order and
size.
Mechanisms: Breaks down and reassembles messages for compatibility.

6. Scalability
Network Growth: Ensures network design remains effective as the number of users
and devices increases.
Performance: Addresses issues like congestion and resource management.

7. Resource Allocation and Statistical Multiplexing 21

Resource Management: Allocates bandwidth and resources efficiently.
Statistical Multiplexing: Shares bandwidth dynamically based on demand.
 4. Network Software
4.3 Design Issues in Network Layers

8. Flow Control and Congestion Management

Flow Control: Prevents fast senders from overwhelming slower receivers.
Congestion Control: Manages network load and prevents overload by adjusting
traffic flow.

9. Quality of Service (QoS)

Traffic Prioritization: Balances real-time and high-throughput data requirements.
QoS Mechanisms: Ensures timely delivery for time-sensitive applications.

10. Security
Confidentiality: Protects data from unauthorized access.
Authentication: Verifies identities to prevent impersonation.
Integrity: Ensures data is not altered during transmission.
Cryptography: Underpins security measures across the network.
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 4. Network Software
4.4 Connection-oriented versus Connectionless services

1. Connection-oriented Services:
Analogous to Telephone System:
Requires establishment, use, and release of a connection.
Reserves a dedicated path or "circuit" for communication.

Characteristics:
Ensures data arrives in the correct order.
Parameters like message size and quality of service are negotiated
beforehand.
Example: File transfers where data integrity and order are crucial.

Variations:
Message Sequences: Maintains boundaries between messages.
Byte Streams: No boundaries maintained; data is a continuous stream.
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 4. Network Software
4.4 Connection-oriented versus Connectionless services
1. Connection-oriented Services:
Mechanisms:
Acknowledgements confirm receipt of each message.
Overhead introduces slight delays but ensures data accuracy and order.

Applications:
Ideal for scenarios requiring high data integrity, such as file transfers.

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 4. Network Software
4.4 Connection-oriented versus Connectionless services
2. Connectionless Services:
Analogous to Postal System:
Messages (datagrams) are sent independently with their own destination
address.
No pre-established connection is required.

Characteristics:
Messages are routed individually and may experience varying arrival times.
Example: Streaming media or sending spam emails where occasional data
loss is acceptable.

Switching Methods:
Store-and-Forward: Complete message received before forwarding.
Cut-Through: Forwarding begins before the entire message is received.
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 4. Network Software
4.4 Connection-oriented versus Connectionless services
2. Connectionless Services:
Types:
Unreliable Datagram Service: No guarantee of message delivery or order;
used for speed and efficiency.
Acknowledged Datagram Service: Provides confirmation of receipt, balancing
reliability and efficiency.

Applications:
Unreliable Datagram: Suitable for applications like voice over IP and video
streaming where minor data loss is tolerable.
Request-Reply Service: Single message request with a reply, commonly used
in client-server communications (e.g., database queries).

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 4. Network Software
4.5 Service Primitives

Service Primitives:
Definition: Operations available to user processes for accessing network services.
Role: Tell the service to perform actions or report on actions taken.
Implementation: Often system calls that invoke the operating system to manage
packets.

Connection-Oriented Service Primitives:

LISTEN: Block until an incoming connection request is received.
CONNECT: Establish a connection with a waiting peer by specifying the peer's
address.
ACCEPT: Accept an incoming connection request from a peer.
RECEIVE: Block until an incoming message is received.
SEND: Send a message to the peer.
DISCONNECT: Terminate the established connection.
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 4. Network Software
4.5 Service Primitives

Example:

Fig. 1.5 A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams.

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 4. Network Software
4.5 Service Primitives

Example:

1. Server Executes LISTEN: Waits for connection requests.

1.Client Executes CONNECT: Sends a request to establish a connection.

2.Server Executes ACCEPT: Responds to the connection request, establishing the

connection.

3.Client and Server Exchange Messages: Client sends a request, server

processes it and sends a reply.

4.Client Executes DISCONNECT: Terminates the connection.

5.Server Executes DISCONNECT: Acknowledges termination and releases 29

resources.
 4. Network Software
4.6 The Relationship of Services to Protocols

Services define what operations a layer provides to the layer above, focusing on the
functional interface. Protocols specify how these operations are implemented,
detailing the rules for packet exchange.

Services are about the interface between layers, while protocols govern
communication between peer entities. This separation allows protocols to change
without affecting the service interface.

Fig. 1.6 The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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 5. Reference Models
5.1 The OSI Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework

developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
standardize and guide the functions of a network.

Introduced to promote interoperability and ensure consistent communication

between diverse systems, the OSI model divides network communication into seven
distinct layers. Each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts with the layers
directly above and below it.

This layered approach simplifies the complex process of network communication by

providing a structured method to understand and implement protocols, making it
easier to design, troubleshoot, and enhance network systems.

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 5. Reference Models
5.1 The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model has seven layers:

1. Physical Layer: The Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits over
a physical medium. It defines the hardware aspects of the network, including
cables, connectors, and electrical signals. This layer ensures that bits are accurately
sent and received as electrical impulses, light signals, or radio waves.

2. Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer organizes raw bits into frames, ensuring
error-free transmission over a local network. It manages frame synchronization,
error detection, and correction, and controls access to the shared medium. This
layer ensures reliable data transfer between directly connected devices.

3. Network Layer: The Network Layer handles the routing of packets across
multiple networks. It manages logical addressing, packet forwarding, and path
selection to ensure that data reaches its destination even through complex network
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paths. It also deals with network congestion and inter-network communication.

 5. Reference Models
5.1 The OSI Reference Model

4. Transport Layer: The Transport Layer provides end-to-end communication

services, ensuring data is transferred accurately and in the correct sequence. It
segments data into packets, manages error recovery, and flow control. This layer
abstracts the complexities of data transport from the layers above.

5. Session Layer: The Session Layer establishes, maintains, and terminates

communication sessions between applications. It handles dialog control,
synchronization, and checkpointing, enabling applications on different machines to
interact smoothly and maintain the continuity of their communication.

6. Presentation Layer: The Presentation Layer translates data formats between

the application and network layers. It ensures data is encoded and decoded
correctly, handling tasks like data translation, encryption, and compression. This
layer enables interoperability by standardizing data representation.
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7. Application Layer: The Application Layer provides network services directly to
user applications. It supports protocols for various functions like web browsing
5. Reference Models

Fig 1.7 The OSI Reference Model 34

 5. Reference Models
5.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP Reference Model, the architecture behind the Internet, was developed
to support robust, flexible communication across diverse networks. Unlike the OSI
model, it consists of four layers:

1. Link Layer: This layer interfaces with physical transmission media and defines
how data is sent and received over various link types, such as Ethernet or serial
lines. It manages the communication between hosts and the network infrastructure,
ensuring compatibility across different physical and data link technologies.

2. Internet Layer: Serving as the core of the TCP/IP model, this layer is
responsible for routing packets from the source to the destination across
interconnected networks. It uses the Internet Protocol (IP) for addressing and
routing, and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) for diagnostic functions.
It allows packets to traverse different networks and arrive at their destination,
potentially out of order, which is managed by higher layers. 35
 5. Reference Models
5.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model

3. Transport Layer: This layer provides end-to-end communication services. It

includes two main protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which offers
reliable, connection-oriented communication, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
which provides a faster, connectionless service. TCP ensures data integrity and
order, while UDP is used for applications requiring quick, albeit less reliable, data
transmission.

4. Application Layer: The topmost layer encompasses all high-level protocols used
by applications. It handles network services and end-user interfaces, such as HTTP
for web browsing, FTP for file transfers, and SMTP for email. Unlike the OSI model,
the TCP/IP model combines the functionalities of the OSI's session and presentation
layers into this single layer, simplifying the protocol stack.

The TCP/IP model is designed to be robust and adaptable, allowing seamless

communication across different types of networks and handling the varying 36

requirements of different applications.

5. Reference Models

Fig 1.8 The TCP/IP Reference Model 37

Thank You