SOIL MECHANICS

Goals of the Course

• The course deals with the study of physical
properties of soils, and their relevance in soil
mechanical behaviour such as strength,
compressibility, stability and drainage.

• It is intended to give the students a

fundamental insight in basic soil mechanical
properties and processes, and how these are
used in geotechnical engineering practice and
in construction works.
Objective
• Students will obtain a basic understanding of
geotechnical engineering principles including
soil classification, seepage, consolidation,
shear strength, and bearing capacity.
Students will also learn how to perform and
apply fundamental laboratory tests on soils.
Evaluation
Assignments
Mid-Exam
Lap Reports
Final Exam
Chap:1 Formation and Types of soils
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF SOILS AND SOIL MECHANICS
Soil :- is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains,
loose or moderately cohesive, with or without organic
constituents that have the capacity of being separated by
means of simple mechanical processes e.g. by agitation in
water.
Soil Mechanics :- is one of the youngest disciplines of
Conctruction Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as an engineering material.
According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the
application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with (soil) sediments and
other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of
rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an
admixture of organic constituent."
 1.2 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF SOILS

• The materials that constitute the earth’s crust

are rather arbitrarily divided into two
categories, soil and rock
• Rock is a natural aggregate of mineral grains
connected by strong and permanent cohesive
forces.
• Rocks are classified according to their mode
of formation as follows:
 Igneous Rocks: - are formed by cooling and
solidification of magma within or on the
surface of the earth’s crust.
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro,
andesite, rhyolite, pegmatites, peridotite,
syenite.
 Sedimentary Rocks: - are formed by
consolidation and cementation of sediments
deposited under water
e.g. limestone, sandstone, shale, dolomite,
mudstone, conglomerate.

 Metamorphic Rocks: - are formed from older

rocks when they are subjected to increased
temperature, pressure and shearing stresses
at considerable depth in the earth’s crust.
e.g. slate, schist, marble, quartzite, gneiss.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from
solid rocks by the process of weathering.
Mechanical/ Physical and chemical weathering of parent rocks

Reduction in size
Reduction in size
and change in
without change in
Composition of
composition of
Parent rocks
parent rocks

AGENTS AGENTS
•Temperature Changes
•Oxidation
•Freezing action of water
•Carbonation
•Spreading of roots of plants
•Hydration
•Abrasion
•Leaching
•Residual and Transported soils.
• Soils, which are formed by mechanical or
chemical weathering, may be classified as
residual or transported soils.
• Residual soils are soils, which are still located in
the place of their origin.
• Transported soils are soils which have been
transported by water, wind, ice and deposited in
an area different from their place of origin.
• Residual soils are usually homogeneous and
stiff while transported soils are loose, soft and
non-homogeneous.
 Transported soils may be classified according to the mode
of their transportation and deposition such as

• Alluvial soils are those soils that have been transported by running
water and deposited along a stream.

• Aeolian soils are those soils that have been transported and
deposited by wind.

• Lacustrine soils are those soils that have been deposited from
suspension in quite fresh water lakes.

• Colluvial soils are those soils that have been deposited by

movement of soil by gravity such as landslides.

• Marine soils are those soils that have been deposited from
suspension in seawater.

• Glacial soils are those soils that have been deposited as a result of
glacial activities
•
 1.3 COMMON SOIL TYPES
Sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders are coarse-grained
cohesionless soils.

• Grain- size ranges are used to distinguish between

them.

• Sand 0.06 to 2mm

• Gravel 2 to 60mm
• Cobbles 60 to 200mm
• Boulders > 200mm

Organic silt is a fine-grained soil somewhat plastic, highly

compressible, and relatively impervious. It is a very
poor foundation material because of compressibility.
Inorganic silts (rock flour) contain only mineral
grains and are free from organic material. They
are mostly coarser than 0.002 mm.
Clay is composed of microscopic particles of
weathered rock within a wide range of water
content, clay exhibits plasticity.
Organic clay contains some finely divided organic
particles. Organic clays are highly compressible
when saturated and their dry strength is very
high.
Black cotton soil is clay characterized by its high
expansive and shrinkage properties. Its Colour
varies from dark grey to black. Great care is
required when structures are to be built on black
cotton soil.
• Hardpan is a term often used to describe any
hard cemented layer, which are not softening
when wet.

• Peat is composed of fibrous particles of

decayed vegetable matter. It is so
compressible that it is entirely unsuitable to
support any type of foundation.

• Loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.

Ch. 2. SIMPLE SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil Composition
-Solids ,Water and Air

Naturally soil will be found in

 Dry state
 Partially Saturated state
 Fully Saturated state
 Submerged state
Soil mass is generally a three phase system
For the purpose of defining the physical and index
properties of soil it is more convenient to represent the
soil skeleton by a block diagram or phase diagram.
Weight - Volume Relationships:
• Weight , Wt = Ww + Ws

• Volume , Vt = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs

• The following relationships can be established

• Void Ratio (e) = Vv/Vs

• Porosity (n) = (Vv/V ) X100

• Degree of Saturation (S) = (Vw/Vv)X100

• Water content () = (Ww/Ws)x100

1.Weighing of soil sample
in its natural or wet state

2.Drying the sample at a

Equipments Required to
determine Water content
temperature of 1050c
 Unit Weight – Density
• Total - Unit Weight of Soil Mass (t)
t = W / V
(This is also known as Bulk unit weight of soil)

• Dry Unit Weight (dry)

dry = Ws /V

• Saturated Unit Weight (sat)

sat = W /V,
where w is the saturated weight of the soil mass (when S= 100%)
• Unit Weight of Solids ( s)
s = Ws /Vs
.Submerged Unit Weight (b)
Total down ward force = Ws +Ww
Total up ward force( up thrust) = v 
Submerged wt (b v ) =( Ws +Ww ) - v 
b = W /V - 
b = sat - 
• Specific Gravity (Gs)
• It is a measure of and a means of expressing the heaviness
of material
• The specific gravity of the solids is expressed by
Gs = s / w

Ws /Vs


 . Laboratory Determination of Specific Gravity ,
The specific gravity determination of a sample of soil is
made by displacement in water using pycnometer
(volumetric bottle).

Ws /Vs
Gs 

 Let:
•Wt of pycnometer bottle + water = W2
•Wt of pycnometer bottle + water + soil =W 1
•Wt of dry soil =Ws
•Let the weight of displaced water = X
•Then W2 + Ws = W1 + X
X = W s + W2 – W1
Volume of displaced water = W s  W2  W1
Since  = W /V =
T
But GT = T = T = GT 

Ws  W2  W1 Which is equal to the volume
Volume of displaced water =
GT  of solids (Vs)

Therefore, Volume of solids (Vs) = Ws  W2  W1

GT 
WS
 Ws  W2  W1  W s GT
Ws /Vs   =
Thus,Gs  =  GT   W s  W2  W1
 GS 

• Interrelationships of Different
Parameters e= V v / Vs =V v/(V- Vv)
e between e andnn
• Relationship e (V- V v) = V v
e V = Vv(1+e)
n = e=
1 e 1 n e/(1+e ) = V v/V =n
n = e/(1+e )
•Relationships Between e, Gs, S and  n (1+e ) = e
n = e( 1-n)
e =n/(1-n)
Case 1. When Partially Saturated (0 < S < 100%)
 Gs or e =
 Gs
S =
e S

Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)

e = Gs
• Unit Weight of Soil Expressed In terms of Other
Parameters (e, Gs and S )
Case 1. When Partially Saturated (i.e. 0<S<100%)

t = W/ V = (Ww + Ws)/ (Vv + Vs)

= Ws(1+Ww/Ws)
Vs(1+ Vv/Vs)
= s (1+ )
(1+ e)
Gs (1   )
t =
1 e

substituting  =
eS G s  eS
, t = 
Gs 1 e
Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)
 (G s  e)
sat =
1 e
Case 3. When the Soil is Dry (i.e. S = 0%)
dry =  Gs
1 e
Case 4. When the Soil is Submerged

b =  (Gs  1)
1 e
Relative Density (Dr)
• The looseness or denseness of sandy soils can be
expressed numerically by the relative density (Dr),
defined by the equation.
Dr = (emax-e)/(emax-emin )*100
In which emax = Void ratio of the soil in its loosest state
emin = Void ratio of the soil in its densest state
e = Void ratio of the soil in the field
 Md  (   ) 
Dr = d  d md
 x 100
 ( Md   md ) 
where Md = Maximum unit dry weight of soil
md = Minimum unit dry weight of soil

d = Dry unit of soil in place

Qualitative Descriptions of Granular Soil Deposits
(Terzaghi and Peck)

Relative Density Description of Soil

(%) Deposit

0 to 15 Very loose
15 to 35 Loose
35 to 65 Medium
65 to 85 Dense
85 to 100 Very dense
Example : Given 1870g of wet soil compacted into a mold with a volume
of 1000 cm3 .The soil is put into the oven and dried to a constant
weight of 1677 g . The specific gravity of the soil is assumed to be
2.66.
Compute the following quantities:
a) Water content. (b) Dry unit weight .(c) Porosity of the soil. (d) Degree
of saturation and (e) Saturated unit weight of the soil.
Solution:
a) Water content
W w = W-Ws = 1870 – 1677 = 193 g
Water content (Ѡ) = (W w/Ws) * 100 = 193/1677 * 100 =11.51%
b) Dry unit weight
dry = Ws /V = (1677/ 1000)* 9.807 = 16.45KN/m3
(c) Porosity of the soil (n)
n = (Vv/V ) X100,
but from Gs we have, Vs = Ws / Gs w = 1677/(2.66*1) = 630.5 cm3
Vv = 1000 – 630.5 = 369.5 cm3
n = (Vv/V ) X100 = 369.5/1000 *100 = 36.95%
d) Degree of saturation:
S = w Gs / e
e =n/(1-n) = 0.3695/( 1- 0.3695) = 0.586

S = w Gs / e = 11.5 * 2.66/ 0.586 = 52.2%

(e) Saturated unit weight of the soil

sat = w (Gs + e)/(1+e)
= 9.807( 2.66+ 0.586)/ 1.586
= 20.07 KN/m3
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

• In this system soils are split into coarse-grained

(cohesionless soil ) and fine-grained (cohesive soil)
• Most systems of soil classification depend to some
extent upon the distribution of various sized particles
in the soil.
• For coarse-grained material this distribution may be
determined by sieving, and for finer particles a
method of measuring the rate of settlement in water is
used(Hydrometer analysis).
•
• The determination of particle size distribution by
these methods is known as mechanical analysis.

• Mechanical analysis can be divided into

» Sieve analysis
» Hydrometer analysis
• Sieve Analysis
• This is carried out by sieving a
known dry weight of sample
through the set of sieves placed
one below the other, so that the
openings decrease in size from
the top sieve down, with a pan at
the bottom of the stock.

• The whole set of sieves is given a

horizontal shaking for about ten
minutes until the weight of soil
remaining on each sieve reaches
a constant value.

• By determining the weight of soil

sample left on each sieve, the
following calculations can be
made.
 Wt. of s oil retained
• Percentage retained on any sieve =  100
Total soil weight

Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve =

Sum of percentage retained on all any coarser sieve
Percentage finer than any sieve size =
100 percent minus cumulative percentage retained
• Hydrometer Analysis

• Soil particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm

(passing 200 mesh sieve) are determined by
the so-called hydrometer method

• It is based on the process of sedimentation of

soil particles in water by gravity.

• Sedimentation by gravity is the separation of

particles of various sizes by their velocity.

• Coarse soil suspension settles out more

rapidly than the finer ones of the same
specific gravity.
the hydrometer
-The hydrometer method of analysis is based on
Stoke’s law of settlement i.e. small spheres in a liquid
settle at different rate according to the size of the
sphere. The terminal velocity of a spherical soil
particle settling in water is expressed by Stoke’s law as

s   2
V D
18

where s = Unit weight of spherical grains

 = Unit weight of water
 = Viscosity of water
D = Diameter of the spherical particles
• Laboratory Procedure for Hydrometer
Analysis
• The effect of influence of one particle over the other is
minimized by limiting the mass of soil for sedimentation
analysis to 50 g in a sedimentation jar of 1000 cm3 capacity.

• 50 gm of soil passing sieve No. 200 is agitated with

water and dispersing agent in 1000 cc jar.

• The density of the suspension is then measured

with streamlined hydrometer at given intervals of
time.

• The hydrometer reading, Zr, is observed at the

surface of the fluid on a scale of the stem and this
indicates the density of the suspension at the
center of the bulb.
The suspension is mixed thoroughly by placing the palm of
hand on the open end of the jar and turning it upside down
and back a few times. The jar is then placed on a table , and
the stop watch is started.
• Readings are usually taken at intervals of ¼, ½, 1 and 2 minutes with
the hydrometer remaining in the suspension all the time.
•For later intervals, that is 5, 10, 20 etc. minutes the hydrometer is put in
the suspension just before reading and removed after each reading.

VH (b)
Z’r
Aj Z’r
Zr Zr
VH
2A j
Center of volume of
hydrometer

Where : VH = volume of the Hydrometer,

Aj = X-section area of the sedimentation
cylinder.
For the readings taken between ¼ and 2 minutes
Zr =H+1/2h

H
Z’r
Zr
h VH/2Aj

For the readings taken at intervals of 5,10,20 ,etc minutes

the actual depth of settlement is given by:
Z’r = Zr - VH/2Aj =H+1/2(h - VH/Aj)
Zr

VH/2Aj

Hydrometer reading
Calibration Chart
If a soil particle of size “D” falls through a distance Zr in
time t, its velocity will be given as

V  r
Z
t

Using Stoke’s law

s   2
V D
18
For early readings (readings taken between ¼ and 2 minutes )

V 18  18  Zr
D   
s   s   t
For later readings ( readings taken at intervals of 5,10,20 ,etc minutes)
18  z r  VH / 2 A j
D 
 s   t
•Zr can be obtained from the calibration curve, which is a
plot of Zr against hydrometer reading.
• The percentage finer, N, can be obtained from
Gs  V 
N  
Gs  1    r  r
  100
 WS 

Where : Gs – specific gravity of solids,

V- volume of suspension,
r – Hydrometer reading in suspension
rw - Hydrometer reading in water at the
temperature as suspension.
•For combined analysis (i.e. sieve analysis +
hydrometer analysis) the percentage finer, N’, can be
calculated from the following equation.

N  W1
N'
W
where
W1 = Weight of soil finer than No. 200 sieve
W = Total soil weight used in combined analysis
N’ = Percentage finer based on entire soil sample, W
• The results of grain size analysis will be presented in the form of
curves, percent finer versus particle diameter.
• The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On the
basis of the shapes one can classify soils as
 Uniformly graded or poorly graded,
 Well graded,
 Gap graded
• Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical lines as
shown by curve. This represents type of soil in which most of the soil
grains are of the same size
• Such soils will easily be displaced under load and have less
supporting power.
• A well-graded soil, represented by curve , possesses a wide range of
particles sizes ranging from gravel to clay size particles.
• Such soil is relatively stable, resistant to erosion, can readily be
compacted to a very dense condition, and will develop high
shearing resistance and bearing capacity.
• A gap-graded soil, as shown by curve  has some of the sizes of
particles missing. On this curve the soil particles falling the range XY
are missing.
Grain size distribution curve

(particle diameter)
 SOIL CONSISTENCY
• Consistency is a term used to indicate the
degree of firmness of fine-grained soils.
• The consistency of natural fine-grained soil
deposits is expressed by such terms as soft,
stiff and hard.
• The physical properties of fine-grained soils
greatly differ at different water contents. Soil
that is soft at a higher percentage of water
content becomes hard with the decrease of
water content.
• Consistency of a soil can be expressed in
terms of Atterberg limits of soils.
• The Swedish Scientist, Atterberg (1911),
developed a method of describing quantitatively
the effect of varying water content on the
consistency of fine-grained soils.

• He established the four states of soil consistency,

which are called the liquid, the plastic, the semi-
solid, and the solid states.

• He also proposed a series of tests for determining

the boundaries known as Atterberg limits between
the physical states of soil.

• Each boundary or limit is defined by the water

content that produces a specified consistency.

•
volume

Plastic State Liquid State

Solid Semi- solid

State State

s p l Water content
• Liquid limit is the moisture content at which
the soil suspension passes from no strength
to a very small strength.

• Plastic limit is the moisture content at which

the sample, when it is rolled into a thread,
starts to crumble rather than distort
plastically.

• Shrinkage limit is the moisture content of a

soil at which further reduction of the
moisture does not bring any change in the
volume.
Determination of Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (ℓ)
• The limits are determined on that portion of soil finer than a No. 40
sieve (ASTM).
ASTM-

• About 100 gm of soil is mixed thoroughly with distilled water into a

uniform paste.
•A portion of the paste is placed in Casagrande cup and leveled.

Liquid limit device (Casagrande device)

 A groove is cut at the center of the soil sample, using the standard
grooving tool .

After cutting the sample, rotate the handle on the Casagrande

device to drop the cup with the soil sample onto a rubber base; a
drop is called a "blow". Count the number of blows it takes for
the cut parts of the soil sample to come together.
•Take a small sample from the closed groove and
determine its water content by weighing the sample
when it is wet. Use an electric oven or other device to
dry the same sample. Subtract the dry weight from the
wet weight of the soil sample and calculate the water
content of the sample.

•The water content of the soil in the cup is altered and

the tests repeated.

•At least four tests should be carried out by adjusting

the water contents in such a way that the number of
blows required to close the groove may fall within the
range of 10 to 40 blows.

•A plot of water content against the log of blows is made.

• The curve so obtained is known as a “flow curve”.
•The water content corresponding to 25 blows is
termed as liquid limit.
 7

6

Water 5
content

4
ℓ

3

2

1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Number of blows

Flow curve for liquid limit

• Plastic Limit (p)
• About 15 gm of soil passing through sieve No. 40 (ASTM),
mixed thoroughly with water.
• The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until it is
about 3 mm in diameter.
• This procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till the soil
shows signs of crumbling when the diameter is 3 mm.
• The water content of the crumbled portion of the thread is
determined. This is called as plastic limit.
• Shrinkage Limit (s)
is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content
does not cause an appreciable reduction in volume of the soil mass.
-- At shrinkage limit, on further reduction in water, air enters
into the voids of soils and thus the volume keeps constant.
• For determination of shrinkage limit, a container of known volume V1 is filled
with soil in the saturated state.
V1 – V2
Ww
W1 V1
Ws V2
Ws

(a) represents (b) represents the (c) represents the dry

saturated soil in a saturated soil at shrinkage soil after oven drying
container of volume V1 limit

• The weight of the saturated soil is determined.

• The specimen is dried gradually first in air and then in an oven at a
constant temperature of 1050c.
• After oven drying the specimen weighed.
• Following the weighing, its volume is determined by displacement in
 V1 – V2

Ww
W1 V1
V2
Ws Ws

(a) (b) (c)

Ww W1  (Ws   (V1  V2 ))
Shrinkage limit     100
Ws Ws
• Plasticity Index, p =l - p
• This indicates
– The presence of clay in a given soil
– the range of water content over which the soil exhibits
plasticity.
• In general, a high numerical value of plasticity index
means a high percentage of clay fraction
Plasticity Index plasticity
0 Non-plastic
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium
>17 High plastic

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit