CELL

BIOLOGY
CIA-1
SUBMITTED BY,
AMOGHA KRISHNA.R
5CBZ
2240539
CHLOROPLAST AND
MITOCHONDRIA
-STRUCTURE,COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS
1.CHLOROPLAST
1.1.INTRODUCTION
The term "cytoplasm" refers to the liquid that saturates cells. It includes various organelles
suspended in the cytosol and the cytosol's filaments, ions, proteins, and macromolecular
structures. With the exception of the nucleus, the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells connects
with the contents of the cell. In prokaryotic cells, however, the genetic material of the cell
is found in the cytoplasm due to the lack of a clearly defined nuclear membrane.
Compared to eukaryotes, the cells are smaller and have a simpler cytoplasmic structure.
1.2.STRUCTURE
Chloroplasts exhibit intricate, well-organized structures that are appropriate for their
particular biological roles. Higher plants have them shaped like lenses, either
planoconvex or biconvex, with dimensions of 2-3 µm in thickness and 5-10 µm by 2-4
µm in size. In higher plants, a mesophyll cell typically has 50–200 chloroplasts, which
make up around 40% of the cytoplasm. The kind of cell, species, environment, and
physiological stage can all affect how many chloroplasts a cell has. Chloroplasts can take
on a variety of morphologies in algae, including net-like, band-shaped, lobed, star-shaped,
and more. They can also have significant sizes, up to 100µm. The structural components
include:Double Membrane (Outer and Inner Membranes),Stroma, Pigment Bodies and
Pigments,Thylakoids and Choloplast DNA and Ribosomes.
i.Double membrane (Outer and Inner Membranes): The phospholipid bilayer that
makes up the External Membrane is smooth and separate from other cytoplasmic organelles.
Chloroplasts have a more intricate, less permeable Inner Membrane located inside the
External Membrane. Cristae, or a series of folds, are formed by the inner portion of the Inner
Membrane and extend into the core regions of the chloroplast.

ii.Stroma: This is the area that the chloroplast Inner Membrane encloses and fills with
material. Enzymes, dissolved ions, water, and other substances necessary for the organelle are
all found in the stroma. The stroma, also called the matrix fluid, is the location where
photosynthesis takes place to synthesize carbohydrates.
iii.Choloplast DNA and Ribosomes: Found within the stroma of the Chloroplast, the
Chloroplast DNA encodes some proteins essential for the chloroplast. The Chloroplast also
carries ribosomes, responsible for the transcription and translation of the chloroplast DNA,
thus synthesizing the required proteins.

iv.Pigment Bodies and Pigments: Chloroplasts carry a mass of chlorophyll, a green

pigment capable of absorbing light energy and participating in the energy conversion
process of photosynthesis.

v.Thylakoids: Present in the stroma of the chloroplast, these membrane vesicles, known
as Thylakoids, harbor several enzymes and molecules. They serve specific roles at different
stages of photosynthesis, such as photophosphorylation and carbon fixation.
• The structure of thylakoids is rather straightforward. The membrane, a thin layer that
surrounds the thylakoid and lets essential substances like nutrients in but prevents
harmful substances from entering, is what gives the structure its name.
• Chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments are stored in thylakoid membranes.
• The lumen is an aqueous space surrounded by a membrane that contains proteins
involved in electron transport and water splitting, among other components required
in the process known as ATP production.
• Thylakoids of chloroplasts are arranged in stacks within the chloroplast, known as
granules.
• The stroma lamellae, which resemble tubes and contain proteins distinct from those
of the grana, connect the grana.
IMAGE OF THYLAKOID
1.3.COMPOSITION

• According to chemical analysis, these are primarily composed of proteins and lipids.
Phospholipids make up the majority of lipids in membranes and lamellae.
• Enzymes, which are entirely present in mature plastids, are also found in proteins.
• Chloroplasts contain proteins, lipids, and chlorophyll, carotenoids, RNA and DNA.
Starch granules or osmiophillic droplets are also present in it.
• Proteins: Proteins form a part of chloroplast membrane and lamellae, and are also
present in the matrix in the form of enzymes.
• Lipids: Lipids are mainly phospholipids, fats, sterols and waxes found in the lamellae
and wall of the plastid.
• Chlorophyll: There are two forms of chlorophyll: chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
Algae and green plants contain them. Four pyrrole rings joined to form a porphyrin ring
constitute the hydrophyllic head of chlorophyll, an asymmetric molecule.
• However, a magnesium atom forms a complex with four rings in chlorophyll (the
magnesium atom is replaced by iron in animal pigments). A lengthy hydrophobic chain
is connected to one of the rings of chlorophyll. Instead of a —CH3 group, chlorophyll
b contains a —CHO group.
• Nucleic acid: The DNA molecule was discovered in chloroplasts of various algae
and higher plants after being found in Chlamydomonas (algae) by Ris and Plaut in
1962. While nuclear DNA is different from chloroplast DNA in many ways, the two
types of DNA are very similar.
The ribosomes of plastids contain RNA. There are two types of RNA:
16S rRNA and 24S rRNA. Aminoacyl-tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetases, and methionyl-tRNA are also present in chloroplasts.
Various components are present in plastids in the following percentage by dry weight:
1.4.FUCTIONS
• Chloroplasts are organelles that are present in the cells of plants and some protozoa.
• They are essential to photosynthesis and are one of the plants’ main sites of energy
conversion.
• The quantity, size, and shape of these chloroplasts directly affect how intensely
photosynthesis occurs and how colored leaves become.
• Regarding function, chloroplasts control how light energy is
transformed into sugars and other organic molecules that
plants and algae can eat.
• Moreover, they produce the necessary lipid components
and amino acids required for the synthesis of chloroplast membranes.
• The process of photosynthesis, which is controlled by the chloroplasts, is responsible
for absorbing light energy and converting it to chemical energy.
• Chlorophyll, a special chloroplast structure, facilitates this inexplicable process. All
green plants use chlorophyll to synthesize nourishment by absorbing sun energy.
• Molecular oxygen (O2) and NADPH, essential for the electron transport chain, are
produced when water is photolyzed. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), sometimes
referred to as the "energy currency of the cell," is also produced under the direction of
photosynthesis.
• Lastly, and most importantly, photosynthesis participates in the Calvin cycle,
sometimes known as the "dark reactions." Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air is used
in this sequence of biochemical events to produce carbon and sugars. These are the
main components that form into organic compounds that can be stored and used as
energy sources, such as carbs.
 2.MITOCHONDRIA
2.1.INTRODUCTION
• Mitochondrion, is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of almost all
eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei), the primary function of which is to
generate large quantities of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• The normal form of mitochondria is circular to oval, and their sizes vary from 0.5 to 10
μm. Apart from generating energy, mitochondria also produce heat, mediate cell
development and death, and store calcium for cell signaling functions.
• The two separate membranes, unique genome, and binary fission method of
reproduction that set mitochondria apart from other cellular organelles suggest that
prokaryotes, or single-celled creatures, and mitochondria have a common evolutionary
history.
2.2.STRUCTURE
• The size of mitochondria is typically between 0.75 to 3 micrometers, and unless
labeled, they are invisible under a microscope.
• They have two membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, in contrast to other
organelles, which are tiny organs inside the cell. Every membrane serves a distinct
purpose.
• There are various compartments or sections within mitochondria, and each one has a
specific function.
• The different parts include outer membrane,
inter membrane, inner membrane, cristae and matrix.
i.External membrane: The external membrane is permeable to small molecules. Porins
are proteins found in this outer layer that create channels through which other proteins can
pass. Many other types of enzymes with a wide range of functions are also present in the
outer membrane.

ii. Intermembrane: The region between the outer and inner membranes is known as the
intermembrane gap.

iii. Inner membrane: proteins with several functions are contained in this membrane.
Most molecules cannot pass through the inner membrane because it lacks porins. Protein
content is also high, 70—75% of total components. Only specific membrane transporters
allow molecules to pass through the inner membrane. The majority of ATP is produced in
the inner membrane.
iv. Cristae: The inner membrane's folds are called cristae. They expand the membrane's
surface area, which expands the volume that can be used for chemical processes. A crista
encloses a space that is a continuation of the outer chamber. The density of cristae indicates the
intensity of respiration.

v.Matrix: This is the space within the inner membrane. Containing hundreds of enzymes, it is
important in the production of ATP. The matrix has protein particles, ribosomes, RNA, DNA
(mitochondrial or mDNA), enzymes of Krebs or TCA cycle (except succinate dehydrogenase
which is membrane-based), amino acid synthesis and fatty acid metabolism, crystals of calcium
phosphate and manganese.

vi. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Mitochondria have their circular DNA, which is
separate from the nuclear DNA.mtDNA encodes some of the proteins essential for mitochondrial
function, although most mitochondrial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA and imported into
the mitochondria.
vi. Ribosomes: Mitochondrial ribosomes resemble bacterial ribosomes in their
structure and function. They are involved in the synthesis of proteins encoded by
mitochondrial DNA.

Microscopic view of mitochondria

2.3.COMPOSITION
• Proteins: 60-70%: Enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, and components of the
electron transport chain and ATP synthase complexes.
• Lipids: 25-30%: Phospholipids: The primary lipids, including:
Phosphatidylcholine: ~40-50% of total phospholipids
Phosphatidylethanolamine: ~30-40% of total phospholipids
Cardiolipin: ~10-15% of total phospholipids, specifically enriched in
the inner membrane.
Others (Phosphatidylserine, Phosphatidylinositol): ~5-10% of total phospholipids
• Nucleic Acids: 1-2%: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Small, circular DNA molecule.
RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA involved in protein synthesis.
2.4.FUNCTIONS
• Mitochondria is the site where food and respiratory substrates are fully converted to
carbon dioxide and water through oxidation. Reduced coenzymes and reduced
prosthetic groups are the initial forms in which the energy released during the process
is stored. The latter quickly oxidizes to generate energy-rich ATR When a cell needs
energy to accomplish several functions, such as muscular contraction, nerve impulse
conduction, biosynthesis, membrane transfer, cell division, movement, etc.,
mitochondria release ATP. The mitochondria are referred regarded as the cell's
powerhouses since they produce ATP.

• Important intermediates for the production of several biochemicals, including

alkaloids, steroids, pyrimidines, chlorophyll, and cytochromes, are provided by
mitochondria
• The matrix or inner chamber of the mitochondria has enzymes for the synthesis of fatty
acids. Enzymes required for the elongation of fatty acids have been reported in the outer
mitochondrial chamber.

• Numerous amino acids are synthesized within the mitochondria. Glutamic acid and aspartic
acid are the first amino acids to form. They are produced, respectively, from oxaloacetic
acid and a-ketoglutaric acid. The amino group (—NH2) from glutamic acid and aspartic
acid is transformed, transaminated, or transferred to make other amino acids.

• Mitochondria may store and release Calcium when required.

• An organism generally receives mitochondria from its mother (maternal inheritance).

Functions of mitochondria
1.REFERENCES
[1]K. Rogers, “Mitochondrion,” Encyclopædia Britannica. Apr. 23, 2020. Available:
https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion
[2] “Chloroplast Fact Sheet: Definition, Structure, Genome, and Function | CD Genomics Blog,” CD
Genomics, Oct. 25, 2019. https://www.cd-genomics.com/blog/chloroplast-fact-sheet-definition-
structure-genome-and-function/.
[3]“Chemical Composition of Chloroplasts (600 Words) | Biology,” Biology Discussion, Aug. 05,
2013. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/chloroplasts/chemical-composition-of-chloroplasts-600-
words-biology/788.
IMAGE CREDITS
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Mitochondria-Structure.jpg
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/clip_image002_thumb40.jpg
https://www.cd-genomics.com/blog/chloroplast-fact-sheet-definition-structure-genome-and-function/

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