Lecture 2 Descriptive Statistics - Tabular and Graphical Presentation

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Introduction to

Statistics

Sayeeda Jahan

Spring 2021
Lecture 2
Descriptive Statistics:
Tabular and Graphical Methods
 Summarizing Qualitative Data
 Summarizing Quantitative Data
 Exploratory Data Analysis
 Crosstabulations
and Scatter Diagrams
Summarizing Qualitative Data

 Frequency Distribution
 Relative Frequency
 Percent Frequency Distribution
 Bar Graph
 Pie Chart
Frequency Distribution

 A frequency distribution is a tabular summary


of data showing the frequency (or number) of
items in each of several non-overlapping
classes.

 The objective is to provide insights about the


data that cannot be quickly obtained by
looking only at the original data.
Example: Marada Inn

Guests staying at Marada Inn were asked to rate


the
quality of their accommodations as being
excellent,
above average, average, below average, or
poor. The
ratings provided by a sample of 20 quests are
shown
below.
Below Average Average Above Average
Above Average Above Average Above
Average
Above Average Below Average
BelowAverage Average Poor Poor
Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
Above Average Average
Example: Marada Inn

 Frequency Distribution

Rating Frequency
Poor 2
Below Average 3
Average 5
Above Average 9
Excellent 1
Total 20
Relative Frequency Distribution

 The relative frequency of a class is the


fraction or proportion of the total number of
data items belonging to the class.

 A relative frequency distribution is a tabular


summary of a set of data showing the relative
frequency for each class.
Percent Frequency Distribution

 The percent frequency of a class is the relative


frequency multiplied by 100.

 A percent frequency distribution is a tabular


summary of a set of data showing the percent
frequency for each class.
Example: Marada Inn

 Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency


Distributions
Relative
Percent
Rating Frequency
Frequency
Poor .10
10
Below Average .15
15
Average .25
25
Above Average .45
45
Excellent .05
Bar Graph

 A bar graph is a graphical device for depicting


qualitative data.
 On the horizontal axis we specify the labels
that are used for each of the classes.
 A frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency scale can be used for the vertical
axis.
 Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each
class label, we extend the height appropriately.
 The bars are separated to emphasize the fact
that each class is a separate category.
Example: Marada Inn

 Bar Graph
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average
Pie Chart

 The pie chart is a commonly used graphical


device for presenting relative frequency
distributions for qualitative data.
 First draw a circle; then use the relative
frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors
that correspond to the relative frequency for
each class.
 Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class
with a relative frequency of .25 would
consume-
.25(360) = 90 degrees of the circle.
Example: Marada Inn

 Pie Chart
Exc.
Poor
5%
10%
Below
Average
Above
15%
Average
45%
Average
25%

Quality Ratings
Example: Marada Inn

 Insights Gained from the Preceding Pie Chart


• One-half of the customers surveyed gave
Marada a quality rating of “above average”
or “excellent” (looking at the left side of the
pie). This might please the manager.
• For each customer who gave an “excellent”
rating, there were two customers who gave
a “poor” rating (looking at the top of the
pie). This should displease the manager.
Summarizing Quantitative Data

 Frequency Distribution
 Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency
Distributions
 Dot Plot
 Histogram
 Cumulative Distributions
 Ogive
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

The manager of Hudson Auto would like to get


a better picture of the distribution of costs for
engine tune-up parts. A sample of 50
customer invoices has been taken and the
costs of parts, rounded to the nearest dollar,
are listed below.
91 78 93 57 75 52 99 80 97 62
71 69 72 89 66 75 79 75 72 76
104 74 62 68 97 105 77 65 80 109
85 97 88 68 83 68 71 69 67 74
62 82 98 101 79 105 79 69 62 73
Frequency Distribution

 Guidelines for Selecting Number of Classes


• Use between 5 and 20 classes.
• Data sets with a larger number of elements
usually require a larger number of classes.
• Smaller data sets usually require fewer
classes.
Frequency Distribution

 Guidelines for Selecting Width of Classes


• Use classes of equal width.
• Approximate Class Width =

Largest Data Value  Smallest Data Value


Number of Classes
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Frequency Distribution
If we choose six classes:
Approximate Class Width = (109 - 52)/6 = 9.5
10

Cost ($) Frequency


50-59 2
60-69 13
70-79 16
80-89 7
90-99 7
100-109 5
Total 50
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency


Distributions

Relative Percent
Cost ($) Frequency Frequency
50-59 .04 4
60-69 .26 26
70-79 .32 32
80-89 .14 14
90-99 .14 14
100-109 .10 10
Total 1.00 100
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Insights Gained from the Percent Frequency


Distribution
• Only 4% of the parts costs are in the $50-59
class.
• 30% of the parts costs are under $70.
• The greatest percentage (32% or almost
one-third) of the parts costs are in the $70-
79 class.
• 10% of the parts costs are $100 or more.
Dot Plot

 One of the simplest graphical summaries of


data is a dot plot.
 A horizontal axis shows the range of data
values.
 Then each data value is represented by a dot
placed above the axis.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Dot Plot

.. . ..
.. .. ... ..
. .. .
. . . ..... .......... .. . .. . . ... . .. .
50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Cost ($)
Histogram

 Another common graphical presentation of


quantitative data is a histogram.
 The variable of interest is placed on the
horizontal axis.
 A rectangle is drawn above each class interval
with its height corresponding to the interval’s
frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency.
 Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural
separation between rectangles of adjacent
classes.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Histogram
18
16
14
Frequency

12
10
8
6
4
2
Parts
Cost ($)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Cumulative Distributions

 Cumulative frequency distribution -- shows the


number of items with values less than or equal
to the upper limit of each class.
 Cumulative relative frequency distribution --
shows the proportion of items with values less
than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 Cumulative percent frequency distribution --
shows the percentage of items with values less
than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Cumulative Distributions
Cumulative
Cumulative
Cumulative Relative
Percent
Cost ($) Frequency Frequency
Frequency
< 59 2 .04
4
< 69 15 .30
30
< 79 31 .62
62
< 89 38 .76
Ogive

 An ogive is a graph of a cumulative


distribution.
 The data values are shown on the horizontal
axis.
 Shown on the vertical axis are the:
• cumulative frequencies, or
• cumulative relative frequencies, or
• cumulative percent frequencies
 The frequency (one of the above) of each class
is plotted as a point.
 The plotted points are connected by straight
lines.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Ogive
• Because the class limits for the parts-cost
data are 50-59, 60-69, and so on, there
appear to be one-unit gaps from 59 to 60,
69 to 70, and so on.
• These gaps are eliminated by plotting points
halfway between the class limits.
• Thus, 59.5 is used for the 50-59 class, 69.5
is used for the 60-69 class, and so on.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Ogive with Cumulative Percent Frequencies


Cumulative Percent Frequency

100

80

60

40

20
Parts
Cost ($)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Exploratory Data Analysis

 The techniques of exploratory data analysis


consist of simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw
pictures that can be used to summarize data
quickly.
 One such technique is the stem-and-leaf
display.
Stem-and-Leaf Display

 A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank


order and shape of the distribution of the data.
 It is similar to a histogram on its side, but it
has the advantage of showing the actual data
values.
 The first digits of each data item are arranged
to the left of a vertical line.
 To the right of the vertical line we record the
last digit for each item in rank order.
 Each line in the display is referred to as a
stem.
 Each digit on a stem is a leaf.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Stem-and-Leaf Display
5 2 7
6 2 2 2 2 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
7 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 9
9 9
8 0 0 2 3 5 8 9
9 1 3 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4 5 5 9
Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display

 If we believe the original stem-and-leaf display


has condensed the data too much, we can
stretch the display by using two more stems
for each leading digit(s).
 Whenever a stem value is stated twice, the
first value corresponds to leaf values of 0-4,
and the second values corresponds to values
of 5-9.
Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display


5 2
5 7
6 2 2 2 2
6 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
7 1 1 2 2 3 4 4
7 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9
8 0 0 2 3
8 5 8 9
9 1 3
9 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4
10 5 5 9
Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Leaf Units
• A single digit is used to define each leaf.
• In the preceding example, the leaf unit was
1.
• Leaf units may be 100, 10, 1, 0.1, and so
on.
• Where the leaf unit is not shown, it is
assumed to equal 1.
Example: Leaf Unit = 0.1

If we have data with values such as


8.6 11.7 9.4 9.1 10.2 11.0 8.8
a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be

Leaf Unit = 0.1


8 6 8
9 1 4
10 2
11 0 7
Example: Leaf Unit = 10

If we have data with values such as


1806 1717 1974 1791 1682 1910 1838
a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be

Leaf Unit = 10
16 8
17 1 9
18 0 3
19 1 7
Crosstabulations and Scatter Diagrams

 Thus far we have focused on methods that are


used to summarize the data for one variable at
a time.
 Often a manager is interested in tabular and
graphical methods that will help understand
the relationship between two variables.
 Crosstabulation and a scatter diagram are two
methods for summarizing the data for two (or
more) variables simultaneously.
Crosstabulation

 Crosstabulation is a tabular method for


summarizing the data for two variables
simultaneously.
 Crosstabulation can be used when:
• One variable is qualitative and the other is
quantitative
• Both variables are qualitative
• Both variables are quantitative
 The left and top margin labels define the
classes for the two variables.
Example: Finger Lakes Homes

 Crosstabulation
The number of Finger Lakes homes sold
for each style and price for the past two years
is shown below.
Price Home Style
Range Colonial Ranch Split A-Frame
Total
< $99,000 18 6 19
12 55
> $99,000 12 14 16 3
45
Total 30 20 35
15 100
Example: Finger Lakes Homes

 Insights Gained from the Preceding


Crosstabulation
• The greatest number of homes in the
sample (19) are a split-level style and priced
at less than or equal to $99,000.
• Only three homes in the sample are an A-
Frame style and priced at more than
$99,000.
Crosstabulation: Row or Column
Percentages
 Converting the entries in the table into row
percentages or column percentages can
provide additional insight about the
relationship between the two variables.
Example: Finger Lakes Homes

 Row Percentages

Price Home Style


Range Colonial Ranch Split A-Frame
Total
< $99,000 32.73 10.91 34.55
21.82 100
> $99,000 26.67 31.11 35.56
6.67 100

Note: row totals are actually 100.01 due to


rounding.
Example: Finger Lakes Homes

 Column Percentages

Price Home Style


Range Colonial Ranch Split A-Frame
< $99,000 60.00 30.00 54.29
80.00
> $99,000 40.00 70.00 45.71
20.00
Total 100 100 100
100
Scatter Diagram

 A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation


of the relationship between two quantitative
variables.
 One variable is shown on the horizontal axis
and the other variable is shown on the vertical
axis.
 The general pattern of the plotted points
suggests the overall relationship between the
variables.
Scatter Diagram

 A Positive Relationship
y

x
Scatter Diagram

 A Negative Relationship
y

x
Scatter Diagram

 No Apparent Relationship
y

x
Tabular and Graphical Procedures
Data
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical


Methods Methods Methods Methods
• Frequency
• Frequency • Bar Graph • Dot Plot
• Pie Chart Distribution •
Distribution Histogram
• Rel. Freq. Dist.
• Rel. Freq. Dist. • Ogive
• Cum. Freq. Dist.
• % Freq. Dist. • Scatter
• Cum. Rel. Freq.
• Crosstabulation Diagram
Distribution
• % Freq. Dist.
• Stem-and-Leaf
Display
• Crosstabulation
End of Chapter 2

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