Instructional Media and Technology

Module Code: PGDT 412

Credit hours: 2
Unit 1: MEDIA IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
 Instruction

• “it is the classroom teaching and learning process”. This is true. But
it does not fully show the essential or the vital purpose of the
interaction, which is the learning output.
• Learning can take place in the absence of direct teaching or
information to the learner.
• Organizing a good learning environment to learn is better than hours
of lecture on a given topic.
• instruction is the arrangement of Information and environment to
facilitate learning.
• Instruction refers to the arrangement of environment (media-
presented information) in an effort to maximize the probability that
learners interacting with this environment will learn what the
instruction intends.
 CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTION

• Researchers have established a good

pedagogical mindset that often accompanies
good technology-based instruction, where the
learning is constructivist and student-centered
• Constructivist researchers and theorists have
identified and described some common
characteristics of meaningful learning
environments.
 Categories of meaningful learning
environments.
1.Opportunities for Authentic Learning: Instructional
contexts are defined that reflect the manner in which the
outcomes to be learned are practiced in the real world.
2. Opportunities for Active Learning: The instructional
context enables the learners to explore and manipulate
the components and parameters of their environment, and
observe the results of their activities.
3. Opportunities for Intentional Learning: The instruction
provides the learners with an opportunity to determine
and set their own goals and manage/regulate their own
activities.
 Con’d…
4. Opportunities for Constructive Learning: Instructional
strategies are facilitated that encourage learners to
articulate what they have been learning and reflect upon
the importance and meaning of the outcomes in larger
social and intellectual contexts.
5.Opportunities for Cooperative Learning: Instructional
strategies are implemented that enable learners to
collaborate and socially negotiate their meanings of the
events and information presented within the learning
experience between themselves and other learners,
outside experts, and the teacher.
 BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

• B.F. Skinner, a proponent of Behaviorism, was interested in

voluntary behavior change rather than the reflective
behavior change demonstrated by Pavlov’s salivating dog.
• Skinner demonstrated that behavior of an organism could
be shaped by reinforcing, rewarding, and the desired
response to the environment.
• Skinners reinforcement theory gave rise to what is known
programmed instruction, where structure subject content
is presented piece by piece and successful completion of a
piece serves as a reward to go to the next.
 The Concrete-Abstract Continuum

• Human Experience is made up of our contact with real world

and the immediate mental abstraction that we keep in our
mind.
• In the process of gaining experience, the combination, the
physical contact with the real world and the mental
engagement in abstraction varies.
• When you gain experience by doing, the concretion (the
physical involvement) is greater than the abstraction (the
mental involvement).
• When you gain experience through reading and listening the
concretion goes to the minimum while abstraction goes to the
maximum.
 Experience
• Experience is the result of the interaction of the
learner and the learning environment.
The following clarifies the type of experience and
the media and senses involved to create that
experience.
• Listening=verbal symbols + hearing
• Reading=visual symbols + association
• Watching=pictures ,images + seeing +hearing
• Doing= reality + all senses
 Cont’d…
• We get concrete experience through the media that allow
us maximum physical involvement (at the base), and
abstract experience through minimum physical
involvement (at the apex).
• Different experiences could mean different media and
different degree of involvement of our senses.
• If an experience involves more senses and the media
approaches to reality, then the experience is concrete.
• On the other hand, if an experience involves min. senses
and the media approaches to symbols, then the
experience is abstract.
 Medium
• Medium is anything that carries message that
includes real objects, models, pictures, and
drawings, verbal and visual symbols.

• The medium is the method that carries the

message.
• methods help in improving the practice of the
community as a medium include:- oral lecture,
discussion, video assisted learning, brochures ,
charts and role play
 Cont’d…
• Medium determines learning by simplifying
message.
• It may also dictate learning if in appropriately
used.
• Print materials do not facilitate learning of
emotions and feelings. Such changes in
behavior could be facilitated by role plays,
drams, small group discussions and other
audio visuals.
 Instructional Media

• Instructional media is a name given to all media

materials, methods and techniques used to facilitate the
teaching and learning process.
• When done well, using a variety of media can enliven a
class, encourage participation, and help students grasp
difficult concepts.
• When used poorly, these same tools can obscure your
instructional objectives and make students confused,
anxious and frustrated.

• Effective learning is learning that gives students the

opportunity to interact with the real world
 Cont’d…
• Students need things to be seen; they have to do- then
they need things to be done; they have to hear,
smell ,taste- then they need things to hear, smell and
taste.
• they need instructional materials or resources. Also
called: Teaching aids; Learning aids; Teaching and
learning aids; and Instructional media

• Medium is anything that carries message that includes

real objects, models, pictures, and drawings, verbal and
visual symbols.
 Instructional materials
• Instructional materials can be defined as those materials a learners
learn from and teachers teach by.
instructional materials do have the following roles:
• Facilitate active learning
• Encourage creative thinking
• Help in student skill development
• Overcome the limitations of space and time
• simplify abstract concepts
• can replace an accessible real objects
• Teach and entertain
• Relate theory with practice
• Help students remember longer
 Cont’d…
• We learn when our senses interact with the instructional
materials.
• When more senses are involved in the process of
interaction with the instructional materials there will be
effective learning.
• Using instructional materials enables students to learn
faster, remember longer, and helps them to understand.
• Instructional materials can provide us varieties of learning
opportunities by helping students move about, talk, laugh,
question, comment upon, and in other ways act in a
natural manner as they do outside the classroom.
 Technology

• The word technology has been attached to science with

different connotations or interpretations.
• Technology is the usage and knowledge of tools, crafts,
techniques, or systems, or methods of organizations.
• It is both a product and a process. Instructional materials
are products of the application of technological processes.
• All technology involves systems. Systems take a variety of
inputs and process them in some way, usually by
interaction of subsystems, and then they generate a set of
outputs some of which are desired and some of which are
unwanted by-products.
 CONT’D..
• Technology is not about machines, so, employing technology
in teaching would introduce better efficiency in the
instructional system as applied:
• Expands the possible modalities of learning.
• Adds some measure of reality to learning (concreteness)
• Increases the perceptual scope of the linear (immediacy).
• Motivates the learner by making learning easier more
interesting, and challenging.
• Provides teacher with more reflective time for improving
instruction.
• Makes record keeping and evaluation easier.
 CONT’D
• Technology encompasses two concepts, that is, technique
which means tools and materials, and logic which covers
the different approaches in solving a problem.
• The term technology as applied to the process of
education includes ways of organizing events and activities
to achieve educational objectives as well as the materials
and equipment involved in the process.
• A technology for learning is defined as specific teaching-
learning patterns that serve reliably as templates for
achieving demonstrably effective learning.
 Cont’d…
The goal of Technology education is to develop in students:
 skills of analysis and problem-solving;
 skills of information processing and computing;
 an understanding of the role of science and
technology in society with
 scientific and technological skills;
 an appreciation and understanding of, and concern
for, balanced development and global environment; and
 a capacity to exercise judgment in matters of
morality, ethics
 Instructional Technology
• Instructional technology is then, a systemic and systematic
application of strategies and techniques derived from
behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the
solution of instructional problems.
• Instructional design, and instructional development are both
important components of instructional technology.
• instructional technology is “the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning,”
• Instructional technology is often referred to as a part of
educational technology but the use of these terms has
changed over the years.
 Cont’d…
• educational technology is bigger/wider than instructional
technology.
• Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of
facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using
and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.
• While instructional technology covers the processes and systems
of learning and instruction.
• Educational technology includes other systems used in the process
of developing human capability.
• In the education industry, the term instructional technology is
frequently used interchangeably with educational technology.
• But educational technology is wider than instructional
technology-it is at macro-level process, but IT is at micro level
attempt to solve a problem of specific instructional situation.
 Cont’d…

• Instructional technology is a growing field of

study which uses technology as a means to
solve educational challenges, both in the
classroom and in distance learning
environments.
• There are three types of learner interaction
(learner-content, learner-instructor, and
learner-learner interactions).
 Systems Approach
• Instructional Design + Instructional Development = Instructional
Technology
• A system is defined as a collection of related components that
interact to perform a task in order to accomplish a goal.
• Computer based information system consists of hardware,
software, people, procedures, and data, as well as communication
setups.
• Education and instruction have many component parts that
operate together as a system for the same end result.
• We have the students, the subject content, the teacher, the
various material resources, the classroom, and other components.
An attempt to improve the end result i.e. better learning can be
affected by the ill effect of any one of these combinations.
 Cont’d…

• Systems analysis and design is a six-phase problem

procedure for examining an information system and
improving it.
• The six phases make up what is known as the system
approach life cycle. The systems development life cycle is a
step-by step process that many organizations follow during
systems analysis and design.
• The six phases in systems analysis and design are shown
below. Systems often overlap, and a new one may start
before the old one is finished. After the first phases,
management must decide whether to proceed to the next
phase.
 Identifying System Problem

• Systems are created to solve problems. We can

think of the systems approach as an organized way
of dealing with a problem.
• Problems may also relate to system cost or access,
limiting the ability of personnel to use system
information to full potential.
• System problem identification step should also
include a deterioration of the seriousness of each
problem and its effects on factors such as clients
and financial considerations.
 Preliminary Investigation
•
• The objective of phase 1, preliminary investigation, is
to conduct a preliminary analysis, propose alternative
solutions, describe costs and benefits, and submit a
preliminary plan with recommendations.
These steps are given below:
• a. Conduct the Preliminary Analysis
• b. Propose Alternative Solutions. In delivering into
the organization’s objectives and the specific problem,
you may have already discovered some solutions.
 Cont’d…

• c. Describe the Costs and Benefits: Input errors or

redundant output may be reduced. Systems and
subsystems may be better integrated. Users may be
happier with the system.
• d. Submit a Preliminary Plan. The readers of this
report will be executives who are in a position to decide
in which direction to proceed- make no changes,
changes a little, or change a lot—and how much money
to allow the project. You should describe the potential
solutions, costs, and benefits and mention your
recommendations.
 2.System Analysis

• This analysis will also consider how people’s

positions and tasks will have to change if the
new system is put into effect. The steps are:
• 1. Gather data. In gathering data, you will
review written documents, interview
employees and managers, develop
questionnaires, and observe people and
processes at their place of work.
 Cont’d
• 2. Analyze the data.: Many analytical tools, or
modeling tool, are available.
• 3. A write a report.: This report to management
should have three parts:
a. It should explain how the existing system works.
b. It should explain the problems with the existing
system.
c. It should describe the requirements for the new
system and make recommendations on what to do
next.
 Cont’d…
• Instructional technology experts need to consider
the whole system rather than the separate
components. They look at it in a holistic manner.
• the belief of improving student learning by
considering teacher training, or curriculum
selection or media utilization or student ability
grouping, handling each separate from the others.
• Any defect in any one of the component parts
becomes a defect of the whole system.
 Section 2: Instruction as Human
Communication Interaction
• Communication is an act by which a person shares
knowledge, feelings, ideas and information, in
ways such that each gains a common
understanding of the meaning, intent and use of
the message.

• Sociologists, educationists and psychologists have

defined communication according to the
disciplines to which they belong. Some definitions
are given below:
 Cont’d…
• Communication should be thought of as a process, not
simply as a transfer of meaning from one mind to another.
• Communication is a truly dynamic process.
• Communication can be verbal or non-verbal.
• In verbal communication, we use words/language in the
written or spoken form.
• Non-verbal communication is often given secondary
importance, but it is much more important than verbal
communication. It includes a series of gestures, such as
facial expression, signs, body movement, eye contact, tone
of voice, and sounds.
 Cont’d…
• People can receive valuable information through
non-verbal cues such as: eye contact; facial
expression; head nodding or shaking; playing with
objects; making sounds/Signs; touch; and taste
• Both communication and instruction involve
Sharing, transferring and construction of
information. Instruction and communication are
inseparable processes.
 Cont’d…

• There cannot be instruction that do not involve

communication.
• Their differences could be that of the purpose or intention.
• The purpose of instruction is educational, but there will
also be communication in which its intention is not
educational
• Teaching and learning process is basically a human
communicative interaction, though it has its own unique
features.
• instructional media plays in improving the problems faced
in the instructional process.
 Communication

•Communication is a process of creating

commonness. In other words it is a process of
establishing common understanding between or
among communicatee.
 Elements of the Communication Process
Major components.
• 1. Message-A piece of information spoken or written, to be
passed from one person to another. It is the subject matter of
communication. It exists in the mind of the communicator.
• 2. Sender/Transmitter- the sender of message or
communicator or spreader, a person who transmits message.
The person who conveys message is known as communicator or
sender.
• 3. Encoding (Communication Symbol)-The process of
conversion of the subject matter into symbols is called as
encoding. The message or subject matter of any communication
is always an abstract and intangible.
• Encoding process translates ideas, facts, feelings, opinions, into
symbols, signs, words, actions, pictures, and audio visuals etc.
 Cont’d…
• 4. Communication Channel-- Communication channel
means the medium or media through which message
passes. The words, symbols, or signs selected should be
transmitted to the receiver or listener through certain
channel or medium.
• 5. Receiver-There is always a receiver in the process of
communication. Receiver is the person to whom the
message is meant for the sender. A person who receives
the message is called receiver.
• It is the receiver who receives and tries to interpret,
perceive, understand and act upon the message.
 Cont’d…
• 6. Decoding-Decoding is the process of
translation of an encoded message into ordinary
understandable language. Receiver converts the
symbols, words or signs received from the sender to
get meaning of the message.
• 7. Acting-According to the understanding of the
message, the receiver acts or implements the
message.
• 8. Feedback-Feedback is though the last element,
but an important one in the communication process.
• The sending back of the knowledge about the
message to the transmitter is known as feedback.
 Section 3: Types or Forms of Human Communication

There are four forms of human communication that are

commonly identified (..).
• The four forms fall in a continuum rather than in
separate partition. The development of one leads to
the inception of the other.
The four forms are indicated below.
• Intra-personal Communication
• Interpersonal Communication
• Intergroup (Mediated)
• Mass Communication
 Cont’d…
• Intra-Personal Communication- Is
Communication transaction that takes place
within one individual. It is talking to oneself.
• Learning is basically an intra-personal
communication activity.
 Cont’d…
• Interpersonal communication is a type of
communication where there is one-to-one
interaction or interaction among a small group.
• Intrapersonal communication is a type of
communication whereby a person interacts with
herself. This type of communication is intrinsic or
reflective.
• Interpersonal communication is an in-between
communication interaction in a face- to -face-
situation.
 Cont’d…
• Mediated communication also called media
communication is communication at a distance use some
means that creates the connection between the source
and the receiver.
• What are the means that we use telephone, telegraph,
radio, letters, fax, television, and e-mail. These days, as
you know well, mobile and internet are dominating.
These devices help to create the connection.
• Major differences with interpersonal communication are
involvement of limited sense organs (hearing or seeing
and rarely both); lack of proximity (nearness); and
utilization of devices to cover distance in media
communication.
 Cont’d…

• Mass communication is the process of creating shared

meaning between the mass media and their audiences.
• Mass communication is a type of communication where
a large body (millions of people) of people is addressed.
• Media inform us, entertain us, delight us, and annoy us.
• Media help define us; they shape our realities.
• some means used are Radio, Television, Newspaper,
Magazines, Film, Video, audio records etc. are examples
of the examples of distributing information.
 characteristics of mass communication

.
 Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning
between the mass media and their audiences;
 It uses technical devices and means to disseminate information;
 The same information may be distributed directly or in stored
form to receivers;
 The receivers are anonymous or unknown public to the sender.
 source of mass communication is institution, where there are
people, machinery, rules and regulations governing action,

 Mass communication is a huge means of reaching people

nowadays
 Purposes of Interpersonal Communication

• The context of the interaction can range from face-

to-face, to telephone, to text messaging, to email.
• Interpersonal communication has the advantage of
immediate feedback and social closeness.
• The educative purpose of interpersonal
communication happens when the communication
is intended to help individual change their
behavior in relatively permanent way to be
manifested in their performance.
 Cont’d…
According to psychologists, change of behavior happens for various
reasons as follows.
• Compliance- change in order not to be punished or to get
benefit out of the change-e.g. stopping when red light is on at
cross roads.
• Identification- Change in order to oneself with others. E.g.
we act like our friends to keep on as a friend; we act just like our
religious group and ethnic group. It sustains or strengthen our
attachment
• Internalization- change that comes as a result of congruence with
one’s value system. coincides with ones belief system and change
is accepted. You boil water before drinking if it is not clean.
 Section 4: Models of Communication in the
Instructional Process

Three major models of communication namely:

i) The teacher centered model of communication
ii) The medium centered model of communication
iii) The learner centered model of communication
i) The teacher centered model of communication
• This model assumes the teacher as both the source
and medium of communication.
• This is a one way communication that makes students
passive receivers of knowledge from their teachers.
 2.The medium centered model of communication
• ii) Sometimes the medium is more important in bringing
the desired change in behavior. The medium is the method
that carries the message.
• methods help in improving the practice of the community
communication: Oral lecture, Discussion , Video assisted
learning, Brochures , Charts and Role play
• Medium determines learning by simplifying message. It may
also dictate learning if in appropriately used.
• Print materials do not facilitate learning of emotions and
feelings. Such changes in behavior could be facilitated by role
plays, drams, small group discussions and other audio visuals.
iii) The learner centered model of communication

• This type of communication values the role of

students needs, background experience and
aspirations in the process of teaching-learning which
is a process of communication.
• Learner centered communication is against the one
way communication that makes students passive
receivers of knowledge from their teachers.
• In this model of communication it is assumed that
effective learning is the result of active participation
of the learner in the teaching-learning process.
 Cont’d…
• Instruction and communication are inseparable processes.
There cannot be instruction that do not involve
communication.
• Their differences could be that of the purpose or
intention. The purpose of instruction is educational, but
there will also be communication in which its intention is
not educational.
• Conventional theories define communication as a linear
flow process. It assumes teacher as sources and students
as receivers. Teacher is assumed to have the
responsibility of transmitting knowledge to students and
students will passively receive the knowledge being
transmitted.
 Cont’d…
• Communication is not something that works something
where ideas are merely uploaded from one person to
another.
• The message should be clear, concise and to the point.
Besides to this the message should be in line with the
aspirations, needs, capabilities and backgrounds of
learners.
• Any mismatch between communication message and
audience’s predisposition, interest, needs etc results in
resistance, thus minimizing the communication effects.
 Unit 2: Information Communication Technologies

Section 1: Electronic Communication Technologies

 -Instructional Radio
 -Audio Cassettes
 -Television
 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
 Computers
 Communication Satellites
 Digital Communication
 Multimedia
 1. Electronic Communication Technologies

• 1. Instructional Radio

• Many schools globally have a number of broadcasts

to schools program. There are a number of reasons
why national broadcast stations would opt to have
these programs.
• Some theorists have described instructional media
as mere vehicles that purvey learning content
without in any way influencing student
achievement (Forsyth, 1996, p.137).
 Cont’d…
Strengths of radio:

• program origination and transmission is done for you free. This

allows you to spend the saved preparation time to do other things
for your class e.g. preparing visuals and assessments.
• Very little power required to power radio sets which allows for
affordable direct current (DC) batteries to bring radio to your class.
• The receiving medium is relatively affordable by most families and
most of the learners have regular experience listening to the radio.
• The infusion of media professionalism and the best teachers in
production presents a very rich experience for both learners and
teachers.
 Cont’d…
• What are some of the problems you might face while trying to use
radio broadcasts for your teaching?
• • At the logistical level radio broadcasting goes by very tight
scheduling. That is, a particular program a particular program comes
on air at specific day and time.
• • At the pedagogical level there are problems too. Radio is
transitory, that is, what has passed cannot be recalled for feedback
purposes.
• Lack of interactivity. You cannot interrupt a program to receive
comments, questions, make clarifications or give guidance which can
become a source of frustration.
• If the signal is weak due to poor infrastructure, there is
frustration.
 Cont’d…

• One recommendation is to record the programs and use

them at an appropriate time. This is if the copyright laws of
our country permit for free if the program is for school use.
• The second recommendation is for us to record, edit and
then use in your class. This allows us to add learners”
responses so that they can compare their responses with
the program.
• The third recommendation is to plan teaching using the
broadcast program as a resource. In this use we can drill
our learners and then play the recording to show the right
response or pronunciation.
 Audio Cassettes

•
• To record, all you need is to insert the cassette into the
cassette player compartment of your radio-cassette
player and press the record button. If you want to reuse
the cassette you just record over.
• The machine automatically erases the existing content as
it records the current content.
• experiment, and restart to go on or get feedback. This
means that an audio cassette can engage learners in
exercise thus making the learning interactive. Thus it can
be employed for DirectTeaching.
Television as a teaching/learning medium

Strengths of Television:
• Cost of program production and transmission can be very
expensive depending on the origination, transmission and
royalties.
• Television combines both audio and visuals to describe
and illustrate complex concepts.
• • It is an effective way to take learners to new
environments
• It is good at demonstration
• • The infusion of media professionalism and educational
pedagogy brings the best experiences to both learners and
teachers.
 Cont’d…
Weaknesses of television
• • The receiving equipment is expensive and sometimes requires
heavy investment in operating power and infrastructure such as
receiving antennae or dishes.
• • The medium is not that familiar to most homes in Ethiopia and
therefore novelty might distract learners from the content of the
broadcast.
• • The attempt to cater for the learning of the average learner
might affect the needs of learners with special needs e.g. slow
learners, physical impairments and so on.
• • The infusion of media professionalism an educational
pedagogy might affect the needs of learners with special needs e.g.
slow learners, physical impairments and so on.
• • The infusion of media professionalism and educational pedagogy
might make learners to start looking down at their teachers.
 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)

• This is a television system that is installed by an

institution for its internal use.
• In some universities, CCTV is used for micro-teaching.
The technology here is simple in that this can be
accomplished with one camera
• In some universities in the Developed World, CCTV is
used for students who may not get a place in the lecture
hall and have to follow the lecture in a spillover hall.
• The same content may be saved in video for those who
were unable to attend the lecture for one reason or
another.
 Video for teaching

• The discussion on television brought in video for

recording off-air and choosing the appropriate
time for time for playback.
• An element of interaction with the material was
also possible. There are a number of ways in
which you can use video to teach or accompany
you teach the class. A few examples will suffice.
• a) Using a video program designed for teaching:
• b) Using multi-videotapes
 Cont’d…
• c)Producing your own material
• This comes in if you train yourself to be a good
amateur video producer.
• d) Collaboration in producing video teaching
materials:
 Computers

• Many people believe that the biggest

achievement of the 20th Century is the
invention and development of the computer
technology.
• In Ethiopia, the technology is permeating fast
albeit in a less coordinated fashion in a short
period of time.
 Strengths of Computers

• The internet makes possible for student and teachers

to view and download teaching material from the
numerous sites around the world.
• The computer allows flexibility of learning. Once
the content has been placed on the platform the
learners chose the time when to visit the site.
• Computers are interactive. This is because
unlike the radio or television the computer is not a
mass medium.
• It is a highly individualized technology and its content
is prepared for consumption by individuals, hence,
the flexibility and interactivity.
•
 Limitations of computers:

• Computer networks are costly to develop. It can

cost more than a million dollars to create a school
backbone to allow internal connectivity. The
infrastructure to move out of the school is prohibitive.
• The rapid change in technology might render your
newly installed system obsolete before you even utilize
it.
• • The technology/pedagogy gap, where the onset of
the technology has not resulted in teacher preparation
for the use and operation of the technology as a
teaching tool,
 Communication Satellites:

• Satellites are communication objects that are located

over 36000 kilometers above the earth along the
equator by communication middlemen.
• These satellites receive either data or image signals
from a ground source and distribute them to ground
receivers and on to the destinations.
• The process of sending material to a satellite is called
uplink while that of bringing it down is called
downlink.
 Digital Communication

• Digital communication has had a major impact in

communication expansion and efficiency.
• Traditional broadcast capacity has been enhanced by
use of digital systems to increase frequency utilization.
• Today one frequency can be used by 24 stations without
interference.
• The high speed data and graphic capacity brought about
by fiber optic technologies gives you the efficiency
which you may require for the incorporation of
communication technologies into your teaching plans.
 Multimedia

• The rapid expansion of communication technologies,

digitization, capacity and speeds has lead to more
innovative approaches to media of communication.
• The direction is towards maximization of use for any
technology leading to amalgams of those technologies.
For instance, a video conference uses voice, picture and
graphics.
• This brings in the use of technologies of radio, television
and the computer if it is local. Beyond that, we call in
satellites to uplink and downlink in milliseconds using
the capacities inherent in digital technology.
 Section 2: Media Literacy

• Television influences our culture in innumerable ways.

One of its effects, according to many people, is that it
has encouraged violence in our society.
• media literacy is the ability to effectively and efficiently
comprehend and utilize mass communication.

• Now we can easily understand that media literacy is a

skill like any other skills we take for granted, but like all
skills, it can be improved.
 Defining Media Literacy

• Media literacy is the ability access, analyze, evaluate,

and communicate messages (1998, p.3).

• Media literacy is knowledge about how media

function society (1998, p.3).

• Media literacy is understanding cultural, economic,

political and technological constraints on the
creation, production, and transmission of message
(1998, p.3).
 Cont’d…
• Media literacy, then, is about understanding the sources
and technologies of communication, the codes that are
used, the messages that are produced,and the
selection, interpretation, and impact of those messages.
(p.51)

• Mass media such as radio, television, and film and

electronic media such the telephone, the internet, and
computer conferencing influence the way meanings are
created, communications need to be aware of the
distinctive characteristics of each medium.
 Cont’d…
• From the definitions most conceptualizations (of media
literacy) include the following elements:
• media are constructed and construct reality;
• media have commercial implications;
• media have ideological and political implications; form and
content are related in each medium, each of which has a
unique aesthetic, codes and conversions; and receivers
negotiate meaning in media.

-media literacy is the ability to effectively and efficiently

comprehend and utilize mass media content.
 Cont’d…
fundamental characteristics of media literacy:
 An awareness of the impact of media
 An understanding of the process of mass communication
 Strategies for analyzing and discussing media messages
 An understanding of media content as a text that
provides insight into our culture and our lives
 The ability to enjoy, understand, and appreciate media
content
 An understanding of the ethical and moral obligations of
media practitioners. development of appropriate and effective
production skills.
 Media literacy skills

• Media literate consumption requires a number of specific skills:

 The ability and willingness to make an effort to understand
content. An understanding of and respect for the power of media
messages
 The ability to distinguish emotional from reasoned reactions
when responding to content and to act accordingly.
 Development of heightened expectations of media content
 The ability to think critically about media messages, no
matter how credible their sources.
 Knowledge of the internal language of various media and the
ability to understand its effects, no matter how complex.
 The Media Literate Person

• Developing solid media literacy skills should lead to several

important outcomes.
The media literate person:
• Is well informed about media coverage issues.
• Is aware of his or her daily contact with the media and
their influence on lifestyles, attitudes, and values.
• Effectively interprets media messages to derive insight
into their meaning
• Develop sensitivity to media content trends as a means of
learning about his or her culture.
• Remains abreast of ownership, financial, and regulatory
issues that have an impact on media industries.
 Cont’d…
• 1. Media literacy is a continuum, not a category.
• 2. Media literacy needs to be developed.
• 3. Media literacy is multidimensional. Potter identifies
four dimensions of media literacy, each operating on a
continuum.
• The cognitive domain refers to mental processes and
thinking.
• The emotional domain is the dimension of feeling.
• The aesthetic domain refers to the ability to enjoy,
understand, and appreciate media content from an artistic
point of view.
 Section 3: Distance Education

• At its most basic level, distance education takes place

when a teacher and students are separated by physical
distance, and technology (i.e. voice, video, data, and
print), often in concert with face-to-face communication,
is used to bridge the instructional gap.
• teaching and studying at a distance can be effective as
traditional instructional, when the method and
technologies used are appropriate to the instructional
tasks, there is student-to-student interaction, and when
there Is timely teacher-to-student feedback.
 Cont’d…
• how is distance education delivered? There are four major
categories:
• 1)Voice-instructional audio tools include the interactive
technologies of telephone, audio conferencing, and short-
wave radio. Passive (i.e., one-way) audio tools include tapes
and radio.
• 2) Video- instructional video tools include still images such as
slides, pre-produced moving images (i.e., film, videotape), and
real-time moving images combined with audio conferencing
(one-way or two-way video with two-way audio).
• 3) Data-computers send and receive information
electronically.
 Computer applications for distance education

• • Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)-uses the computer as

a self-contained teaching machine to present individual lessons.
• • Computer managed instruction (CMI)- uses the computer
to organize instruction and track student records and progress.
• • Computer-mediated education (CME)- describes
computer application that facilitate the delivery of instruction.
Example includes electronic mail, fax, real-time computer
conferencing, and the World-Wide Web (WWW) application.
• • Print- is a foundational element of distance education
programs and the basis from which all other delivery systems have
evolved. Various print formats are available including: textbooks,
study guides, workbooks, course syllabi, and case studies. The first
distance-delivered courses were offered by correspondence study,
with print materials sent and returned to students by mail.
 Advantages of Print Materials

• Spontaneous-print materials can be used in any setting

without the need for sophisticated presentation equipment.
• Instructionally transparent-
• Non-threatening- reading is second nature to most
students.
• Easy to use-given adequate light, print materials can be
used any time and any place without the aid of supplemental
recourses such as electricity, viewing screen, and specially
designed electric classrooms.
• Cost-effective- no instructional tool is less expensive to
produce than print.
• Easily reviewed
 limitations of a printed material

the limitations of a printed material include:

 limited view of reality;
 passive and self-directed feedback; and
 interaction; and dependent on reading skills.
 Strategies for Learning at a Distance

In a distance education setting, the process of student

learning is more complex for several reasons (Schumer,
1993).
 Many distance-education students are older, have
jobs, and families.
 Distant students have a variety of reasons for taking
courses.
 In distance education, the learner is usually isolated.
 Until the teacher and students become comfortable with
the technical delivery system, communication will be
inhabited.
 Cont’d…
• Morgan (1991) suggest that distant students who
are not confident about their learning tend to
concentrate on memorizing facts and details in
order to complete assignments and write exams.
• As a result, they end up with a poor
understanding of course material.
• He views memorization of facts and details as a
surface approach to learning and summaries it as
follows.
 Surface approach

 Focus on discrete elements

 Memorize information and procedures for facts
 Unreflectively associate concepts and facts
 Fail to distinguish principles from evidence, new
information from old.
 Treat assignments as something imposed by the
instructor
 External emphasis focusing on the demands of
assignments and exams leading to a knowledge that is
cut-off from everyday reality.
 Deep Approach

Distant students need to become more selective and focused in

their learning in order to master new information. The focus of
their learning needs to shift them from a surface to a deep
approach. Morgan (1991) summarizes this approach as follows
Deep Approach:-
• Focus on what is signified
• Relate and distinguish new ideas and previous knowledge.
• Relate and disguise evidence and argument
• Organize and structure content
• Internalize emphasis focusing on how instructional
material relates to everyday reality.
 Improving Distant Learning

The shift from surface to deep learning is not automatic.

Brundage, Keane, and Mackneson (1993) suggest that adult
students and their instructors must face and overcome a
number of challenges before learning takes place including:
• becoming and staying responsible for themselves;
• owning their strengths, desires, skill, and needs,
maintaining and increasing self-esteem;
• relating to others;
• clarifying what is learned; redefining what legitimate
knowledge is; and dealing with content.
 Interactive Videoconferencing Distance Education

• Interactive Videoconferencing in Distance

Education is an effective tool that may be used
in distance education settings.
• This system can be integrated into the
distance program with minimal adaption to
the curriculum and course and is designed to
support two-way video and audio
communication between multiple locations.
 Cont’d…
• IVC is commonly used to connect two locations using
sophisticated computer technology. The core of IV is
the codec (coder/decoder).
• This is electronic device that transmits and receives
the video signals that the class members will see on
their television monitors (Galbreath, 1995).
• It may be easier to think of the codec as an extremely
sophisticated modem. A modem takes digital data and
transmits it over regular phone lines.
 Cont’d…
advantages for using interactive video to be effective in a
distance learning, because it:
• allows real time visual contact between students
and the instructor or among students at different sites.
• Blackboards, handwritten documents, and video
may be incorporated at all sites.
• Enables connection with experts in other
geographical locations
• Can provide access to at-risk or special needs students
• Provides additional access to students at remote sites.
 Limitations of Interactive Video

• As with any technology, interactive video has its limitations:

• The initial cost of the equipment and leasing the lines to
transmit conferences may be prohibitive.
• Unless a strong effort is made by the instructor, students not
located with the instructor may remain uninvolved in the course.
• If visual, like handwritten or copied materials, are not
properly prepared, students may have a difficult time reading
them.
• If the pipe that carries the transmission among sites is not
large enough, the students may observe ghost images when rapid
movement occurs in real time
• If the system is not properly configured, class members may
observe an audio echo effect, the result is audio interference that
detracts from the learning environment.
 types of Videoconferencing systems
• 1. Small room videoconferencing- this system is
designed primarily for small groups (1-12 participants)
at all sites seated around a conference table
• 2. Classroom videoconferencing. This type of
system usually uses high quality AV components,
codecs, and an interface that allows all participants to
be seen on the monitors.
• 3. Desktop videoconferencing- this system utilizes
a personal computer and video conferencing software.
Unit 3: Instructional Media and Their Use for Learning

Instructional materials can be broadly classified

as three dimensional that includes
• real objects and their model;
• two dimensional including diagrams, pictures,
charts, graphs and maps;
• audio media that includes educational radio
broadcast and TV; and display boards
including chalk board and cloth board.
 Cont’d…
• Real objects are real things which have been removed
from their natural settings and brought to school settings
or to be accessed while in their natural settings for
instructional purposes.
• Locally manufactured products, coins, plants or their
parts, insects, different body parts of dead animals are
some of the examples of real objects which can be used
effectively in teaching various subjects.
• Real objects help students to learn by involving more
than one sense organ so that they can easily understand
and remember longer.
 Cont’d…
• There are some real objects that can be brought to
classroom to facilitate the teaching and learning.
• It’s also possible to access real objects by going to their
natural settings.
• Field trips are one of the most valuable of instructional
methodologies that can help access real objects in their
natural setting.
• Life in the classroom can cover only a small part of the
real world, and if our learning is to become full and well
rounded we must go beyond our school walls and into
the community as students.
 Cont’d…
The following are some of the advantages of field trips:
• Supplement and enrich curriculum experience.
• Provide firsthand experience
• Add spice to the teaching of various subjects.
• Offer varied types of experiences to the pupils.
• May help boys and girls to select their vocation
• Children learn that life is learned through living it.
 Models

• There are times where we cannot bring or access the real

object.
• In this case we may use the representation of the real object.
This representative of the real object is called a model.
• Models are three dimensional objects. They reduce large
objects to a size convenient for observation of the
fundamental parts of the real object.
• Models can be handled, operated and seen from a number
of angles and hence are generally more interesting and
instructive than a picture or a chart which is two
dimensional.
 Pictures and charts

• Pictures most commonly used in instruction can be

photographs, your own drawings, and illustrations.
• Pictures are said to be one of the oldest, least expensive and
most universally available forms of instructional resource that
can facilitate teaching and learning.
• Charts may be defined as combination of graphic and pictorial
materials designed for the orderly and logical visualizing of
relationships between key facts and ideas like in showing life
cycles of insects.
• The main function of the chart is always to show relationships
such as comparisons, relative amounts, development,
process, classification and organization.
 Maps

• Maps are reduced, simplified and plain

representation of the Earth’s surface.
• They are used to show the distribution of climate,
population, vegetation, land forms etc
• Maps are graphic instructional materials that
facilitate learning by showing students how to
quickly and effectively locate different place and
natural phenomena of the world.
• Maps can show you the different locations of a city
quicker than by using words.
 Audio media

• Audio media offer wide range of opportunities for

group or Individual use.
• They can be used to deliver instruction involving
verbal information, and also for guiding the learning
of intellectual and motor skills.
• They are also relevant for learning objectives related
to affective domain of learning.
• Audio medium is equally good for all types of
instruction from the precision of speech to the mental
imagery formed by music and sound effect
 Cont’d…
Principles related to our use of media and technology
should be kept in mind:
• Choose the media that best suits your instructional
objectives.
• If possible, use a variety of tools, PowerPoint,
mpeg/movie films, internet, and, yes the chalkboard not
only keeps students’ interest but also responds to the
needs of those who receive information in different ways.
• Check out the media or technology before class
starts to be sure it is working properly.
 CONT’D…
The major building blocks of useable human knowledge are
made up of:
• Direct contact with reality (the concrete experience)
• the abstract experience
• Abstract + Concrete= the knowledge we use in our
everyday life
• Useable experience cannot be gained on either one of the
two alone; i.e. neither the concrete nor the abstract alone
can form useable experience.
• The concrete world needs to have mental abstract
representation or it is not known.
 Brief description of components of the
cone of experience
• A. The enactive group- the first three bands of
the cone of experience are under enactive
way of gaining experience (learning by doing).
The learners are active participants with
relative difference of materials used as you go
up the cone.
 CONT’D…

• 1. Direct purposeful experience- this is the direct,

first-hand way of gaining human experience.
• The learner directly faces reality and gathers
information through all the sense organs—seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling and tasting.
• 2. Contrived experience- is the way learners gain
experience through the use of working models,
mockups, specimen or simulation. Here the limitations
of direct purposeful experience are improved through
the use of edited representation of reality.
 What are the changes in the materials used?

• Specimen is a sample of materials not found easily. The learner

does not use their real environment; the specimen is used in
changed situation.
• Simulation imitating real action under controlled situation.
Simulators are the materials used. Examples are simulators of
airplane
• Working models are three dimensional simplified representation
of reality that shows the working of the reality. Models of cars that
move like are examples. The change is either in size or complexity
or in both.
• Mock Ups are models that emphasize only a part of the reality it
represents. An example of mock up will be a model of human body
that shows only the blood circulation system.
 3. Dramatization-

When the learner gains experience about past

events and thoughts by recreating them through
her/his action it is said to be dramatization.
Students act and learn. There are different kinds of
drama used like:

• Role play-allow learners to act like someone;

• Socio-dram which reveals social actions;
• Plays which has complex plots in the action;
 CONT’D…

B. Iconic group- the materials used either

reflects reality as-it-is or is direct imitation.
1, Demonstration is showing how something
works using verbal explanation. In simple
expression it is an audiovisual presentation for
learning purposes.
 Study trip

• The next on the Cone of experience is study trip, which is

taking students to any location out of the classroom, near
or far, for the purpose of learning through selective
observation.
• Here the learner goes to a location to learn through
observation and it does not as such include the expert
explanation present in demonstration.
• People confuse study trip for other types of excursion or
field trip.
• Study trip is different because it is just another way of
learning a given topic through selective observation.
 Cont’d…
• Exhibits- are using a collection of materials under
controlled situation for learning through direct observation.
• C. The symbolic group-
• Visuals symbols- include designed materials like cartoons,
sketches, diagrams, maps, graphs, posters, charts, comic
drawings and the likes. These are materials mostly used in
schools.
Verbal Symbols (Words)
• These are the most abstract or indirect representations of
reality. The verbal words have nothing in common with
what they represent.
 Unit 4: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA MATERIALS: THEIR
NATURE AND USE

Section1: Systematic Planning for Use of Technology

• instructional media include textbooks, teachers
guide, science kits, low cost and no cost materials,
etc.
• Students come into schools with diverse needs,
abilities and styles of learning, thus, teachers need
to prepare, select and use different instructional
materials that accommodate the diversity.
 Cont’d…
Heinich, et al (1996), have devised a systematic procedure
called ASSURE to help to assure learning. The letters in the
word ASSURE represents the steps that users are expected
to follow when they plan to use media resources.
A ----- Analyze Learner Characteristics
U--- Utilization
• S ---- State Objectives R
--- Required Response
• S --- Select and/or design media E
-----Evaluation
 Cont’d…
Select and/or Design media, Methods and
Materials. There are three options:
• select available materials- buy from market or
from shelf;
• modify existing materials, or;
• designing new materials.
 Cont’d…
• To select appropriate instructional visuals we
examine the following characteristics:
• 1) Content--the primary selection criterion
and Characteristics of any instructional
materials is the content
• 2) The best selection criteria are the visual
characteristics
 Cont’d…
• 3) Visuals are to be read.
• 4) Cost effectiveness or getting the worth
or the value of the mental effort, money, time
and physical strength that you put in to the
preparation of the visual should also be
considered for selection.
• 5) Lettering- the way the letters are written
equally matters.
 Cont’d..
Preparation or Modification of Teacher-made
Instructional Visuals
• Graphics or preparation of visual materials
takes the skill of professionals who are
trained and qualified
• all teachers may not have the talent or the
skill to present information in visualized way.
 Cont’d…
• Tracing is transforming visual information from
original source to another surface by placing
very light and semi-transparent material
(paper, plastic …) over the original visual.
• Enlarging Techniques: One of the common
problems that teachers face in visual
presentation is the size of the visuals.
Lettering technique: Once you have done with
the enlarging, the visual should be labeled.
 Cont’d…
Duplication technique
• Once you have the virtual ready with the
representation of the concrete (the part that
imitates reality) and the representation of the
abstract (the lettering) ready
• the next you may think of will be
reproduction or having several copies of the
same visual so that you can use it in several
classrooms and have some on reserve.
 Cont’d…

Mounting Techniques
• Mounting is the process of giving visual materials a durable
backing. We either prepare the visual on durable material or
attach the visual to durable materials. It is when we attach
easily damageable materials to durable on that we all it is
mounting.
• In mounting process there are three important components:
the visual, the adhesive, and the durable backing.
Lamination Techniques
• Lamination is a process of protecting the surface of visual
from the effects of moisture, small scratches, dust and wear
and tear. The surface visual is covered with plastic material
that has adhesive on one side.
 Display Materials

• The way visuals are displayed is as important

as the way they are prepared.
• If visuals cannot be seen; if they do not attract
and hold attention, if they can not present
visual content clearly then all the effort put
into the preparation becomes fruitless.
• Display mechanisms have equal importance
and should not be overlooked.
 Cont’d…
• Bulletin Board-is a visualizing device that you
see in school compounds are Bulletin Boards.
• Bulletin boards are visual information boards.
• Different kinds of visuals like photographs,
student written works, diagrams, charts,
posters, different kinds of graphs and maps
are displayed for presenting visual information
to viewers.
 Cont’d…
Chalk Board or Whiteboard
• Schools has been replaced the ubiquitous
chalkboard with whiteboards in most
classrooms.
• The whiteboard is one of most basic forms of
technological media and is best used for
emphasizing essential information and
developing ideas as the class progresses.
 Cont’d…
• Document cameras are located in many of the
general purpose and technology enhanced
classrooms on campus.
• With a document camera, you can display
documents, books, graphs eg. Pictures, charts,
and maps) and three-dimensional objects and
project them so even students in the back of
the classroom.
 SECTION 2:Media Resources in Schools

The technological media resource classification

includes the following:

• Verbal symbols
• Visual symbols
• Instructional Radio and Recordings
• Photographic Representations
• Instructional computers
• Reality and actual situations.
 1. Verbal Symbols or Words

• Verbal symbols are arbitrarily and randomly

selected mental codes that are created to
stand for the fluid and continuously changing
human experience.
• Verbal symbols are arbitrarily because they
have no resemblance with the reality and are
selected by agreement of a certain group to
serve as a means of communication.
 Cont’d…
Psychologists have notified that we gather and
give momentary meaning to:
• 83% of what we see; 11% of what we hear; 3%
of what we tough; 1.5% of what we smell;
and 1.5% of what we taste
 Cont’d…

Treicher (1967) has concluded the above relationship

between our senses and how we learn. People generally
remember and retain:
 a. 30% of what we see;
 b. 20% of what we hear;
 c. 50% of what we see and hear.
 d. 70% of what we say and write ; and
 e. 90% of what we say as we do
When all the senses are involved the retention goes up to
90% and above, from this psychological perspective what we
do is more concrete than what we see and what we hear.
 A major limitation of verbal symbols
 it is abstract mental construct having nothing in common
with its referent
 Words are static while what they stand for is all the time
changing.
 There are very limited numbers of words for the
unlimited nature around us.
 Words are easy to catch and repeat without having
meaning
 There are various levels of abstractions in words. In some
the leap from word to meaning is simple.
 There are also technical jargons used by professionals
that the layman and laywoman would not easily understand.
 Misuse also distorts word interpretation like
mispronunciation, poor handwriting, etc.
 D. Utilization of Spoken Words for Learning

• Spoken words are one of the major means of

learning in the school instruction.
• Teachers explain, students answer questions,
and they discuss using words.
• Misuse can affect the learning output
negatively. During speaking the literature need
to receive the sound information clear and
loud.
• Misconception, blurring etc. are some of the
obstacles of spoken words.
 Cont’d…
• The following is a procedure that most suggest for
improved verbal presentations.

a. Getting Ready
 An effective spoken presentation needs a careful planning
where you need to analyze learners characteristics
 Practicing the presentation before hand is vital.
 Setting up environment according to the need of
presentation with the necessary arrangement of visuals,
equipment, seating positions is very useful.
 Cont’d…
b. Presenting
 Reduce anxiety- nervousness and excitement are normal
before presentation.
 Check in advance-use the five P’s, i.e. prepare the
material, prepare you, prepare the environment, prepare
the students, and present.
 Add movement-during delivery it is good to stand for
command of attention.
 Repeat key
 Allow participation- make sure that there is learner
involvement all the time.
 Cont’d..
• summarize the important points at the end and leave the
learner with a question to ponder about.
• • Evaluate-evaluate your presentation.
As there are obstacles to utilization of spoken words there are also
barriers to written words, if not more.
Any one or a combination of the following five factors can affect
readability of English lettering.
A. Style or shape of the letter
B. Size of letter in relation to viewing distance
C. Spacing between letters, words and lines
D. The lay out, and
E. The color contrast between body of letter and background
 2. Verbal Symbols
• Visual symbols are universal short hands
created by us to help readers to understand
the torrent of information that they are
flooded with all the time they read.
• Visual symbols are also part of the most used
in the school system.
Section 3: Instructional Media Centers: THE Practice in
Ethiopia

• Compared to the traditional highly disciplined

church education where rote learning is the
major mode of teaching, the modern
classrooms are different in a number of ways.
• In the traditional approach the teacher or the
leader faces students learning through reciting
what the teacher says.
• The classroom resources earlier mentioned are
results of the introduction of modern education.
 Cont’d…
• the most used visualizing devise next to the verbal
presentation or talk may be the chalkboard and
predominantly, for copying purposes.
• What is written in the text is copied on to the
chalkboard and then copied onto the exercise books
of the students.
• As a result of this perennial misuse of chalkboard
and dominance of teacher talk, verbalism or the
overuse of meaningless words has been the major
problem.
 Cont’d…
According to Birara Gebru (2006) several reasons are
listed for not using variety of media resources in the
teaching-learning process:
 Lack of initiative or conviction among teachers to
use media resource.
 Lack of training of teachers to produce materials.
 Lack of resources for preparing instructional
media materials.
 The extra demand of effort, time and money for
producing or purchasing media resource materials.
 Cont’d…
The main purpose of School pedagogical Centers (SPC) was :
 to satisfy the immediate needs of schools in the areas of
producing instructional media materials,
 training teachers in the preparation of the materials keeping
a collection of the materials for school use making research in
the area.
• According to the Ministry of Education the objectives of
school Pedagogical Centers are:
 To promote the crisscross of ideas and materials.
 To foster the development of learning from one another
 Cont’d…
 To encourage those who have the ability and know-
how to come forth and demonstrate their skills and
talents.
 To recognize and appreciate the efforts of
those who try their level best to contribute to the
growth and development of their profession.
 To induce professionals to engage in creative,
innovative and productive work and to give them
the necessary support that would facilitate their
work.
 SPC Planning Organization and Management

How would you include in your planning of SPC that you

manage?
• As a matter of fact, you may have to include the
following helpful considerations:
 Relevance is one of the important items that
should be considered first.
 Awareness of relevance by users is equally vital.
 Experts may feel the importance, but if users are not
aware a major concern of the leader should be
mobilizing all staff for the creation of the awareness.
 Cont’d…
 Resource is also a major concern area. Material
resources, information resource and human resource
need to be identified clearly be spelled out.
 Continuous assessment and taking appropriate
measures on time is vital. Flexibility to a certain degree
can help amend unexpected miss-happenings.
 Program implementation procedure need to be
clearly stated with appropriate monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms set. Distribution of duties and
responsibilities, accountability and decisions to be made
should clearly be.
 Basic Materials for SPCs

• All SPCs in Ethiopia has to have major common purposes

of rendering service for better learning.
• The need to have any kind of equipment or material can
be justified only in terms of its contribution to learning.
• In the Ethiopian context, we should know that there is
too much dependency on verbal symbols or word of
mouth.
• A major function of SPC would be offering a chance of
producing and selecting audiovisual materials that can
give wider concrete base to more abstract expressions or
ideas.
 Cont’d…
With the Ethiopian school situation, the viable and affordable
materials for all schools to be kept in SPC for learning
purposes would be:
 Production materials
 Internet/computers
 Audiovisual equipment
 Real materials from the community
 Models and mockups
 Photographic materials
 Different kinds of display boards
 Audio materials