Rational Functions

Polynomial Function
It is a function defined by:

n n 1 n 2
f ( x) an x  an  1 x  an  2 x  ...  a1 x  a0
where a0, a1, …, an-1, an, are real numbers,
an≠0, and n is a non-negative number.
Polynomial Functions
The following are examples of polynomial
functions:
3 2
f ( x) 3x  4 x  5 x  2
4
g ( x) 5 x  2
3
h( x) 6 x  2 x
Constant Function
A linear function f is constant function if
f(x)=mx+b, where m=0 and b are any real
number.
The following are constant functions:
f ( x) 3
g ( x)  5
1
h( x ) 
2
Linear Function
A function f is a linear function if f(x)=mx+b,
where m and b are real numbers and m and
f(x) are both equal to zero.
The following are linear functions:

f ( x) 3x  2
g ( x) 5 x  4
3
g ( x)  x  8
4
Quadratic Function
A quadratic function is any equation of the
form f(x)=ax2+bx+c where a, b, and c are
real numbers and a≠0.
The following are quadratic functions:
2
f ( x) x
2
g ( x) x  4
2
h( x )  x  2 x  1
Rational Function
A rational function can be written in the
form:
N ( x)
f ( x) 
D( x)

where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials and D(x)

is not the zero polynomial.
The domain of a rational function
Rational Function
The domain of a rational function:

N ( x)
f ( x) 
D( x)
is all values of x that will not make D(x) equal
to zero.
Rational Function
The following are rational functions:

1 x
f ( x)  g ( x)  2
x x 9
2
x 1 2
3x  5 x  2
h( x )  i ( x)  2
x 1 3x  7 x  2
Asymptote
An asymptote is a line (or a curve) that the
graph of a function gets close to but does not
touch.
The line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the
graph if f(x)—>∞ or f(x)—>-∞ as x—>a,
either from right or from left.
The line y=b is a horizontal asymptote of the
graph f(x)—>b as x—>∞ or x—>-∞.
Asymptote
Note: f(x)—>∞ is read f(x)=20/x
30

25
y—>∞ as x—>0
as “f of x approaches x=0
20

infinity” 15

The graph of f(x)=20/x 10

x—>∞ as y—>0
at the right has y=0 5

vertical asymptote x=0 0

-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

and horizontal -5

asymptote, y=0. x—>-∞ as y—>0

-10

Note: y—>∞ and y— -15

>∞ as x—>∞. Also y— y—>-∞ as x—>0

-20

>0 as x—>∞ or x—>-∞ -25

-30
Finding Asymptote
1. Vertical Asymptote
They are the restrictions on the x-values
of the reduced rational function. To find the
restrictions, equate the denominator to zero
and solve for x
Note: the factors that are cancelled
when a rational function is reduced represent
holes in the graph.
Finding Asymptote
2. Horizontal Asymptote
the horizontal asymptote is determined
by comparing the degrees of N(x) and D(x)
in:
n n 1
N ( x) an x  an  1 x  ...  a1  a0
f ( x)   n n 1
D( x) bn x  bn  1 x  ...  b1  b0
Finding Asymptote
2. Horizontal Asymptote
a) If n<m, the graph of f has line y=0 as
horizontal asymptote.
b) If n=m, the graph of f has the line
y=an/bm as a horizontal asymptote
where an and bm are leading
coefficients of the numerator and
denominator respectively.
c) if n>m, the graph of f has no
horizontal asymptote.
Finding Asymptote
3. Oblique or Slant Asymptote
oblique asymptote occurs when the
numerator of f(x) has a degree that is one
higher than the degree of the denominator. If
you have this situation, simply divide the
numerator by the denominator by either
using long division or synthetic division. The
oblique asymptote is the quotient with the
remainder ignored and set equal to y.
Examples:
Find all asymptotes of the graph of each
rational function:
1 x 2
1. f ( x)  3. f ( x) 
x 1 x 1
2
4x x  4x  3
2. f ( x )  4. f ( x )  2
2 x 1 x  5x  4
Solution for #1:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
x  1 0 n<m; (0<1)
y 0
x  1
Solution for #2:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
2 x  1 0 n=m; (1=1)
2x  1 4
 y
2 2 2
1 y 2
x 
2
Solution for #3:
Vertical Asymptote: Oblique Asymptote:
n>m; (2>1)
x  1 0
x 1
x 1 x 1 x 2

2
Horizontal x  x
Asymptote:
x
y x  1 x 1
1
Solution for #4:
2
x  4x  3
f ( x)  2
x  5x  4
( x  1)( x  3)

( x  1)( x  4)
x 3

x 4
Solution for #4:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
x  4 0 n=m; (2=2)
x 4 1
y
1
y 1
Try This:
Find all asymptotes of the graph of each
rational function:
x 5 x 1
1. f ( x )  3. f ( x)  2
x2 x 4
2
2
x 4 x  5x  4
2. f ( x )  4. f ( x )  2
x x  2x  3
Solution for #1:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
x  2 0 n=m; (1=1)
x  2 1
y
1
y 1
Solution for #2:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
x 0 n>m; (2>1)
Horizontal
x
Asymptote:
4 2
x x 4
y x 
x 2
x
4
Solution for #3:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
2 Asymptote:
x  4 0 n<m; (1<2)
y 0
( x  2)( x  2) 0
x  2 0; x  2 0
x  2; x 2
Solution for #4:
2
x  5x  4
f ( x)  2
x  2x  3
( x  4)( x  1)

( x  3)( x  1)
x4

x 3
Solution for #1:
Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal
Asymptote:
x  3 0 n=m; (2=2)
x 3 1
y
1
y 1
The Zeros of Rational Functions
In fraction N/D, D must not equal to zero
since division by zero is undefined.
Examples:
7/0, -53/0, 0/0
In the same fraction N/D, if N=0 and D≠0,
then the fraction is equal to zero.
Examples:
0/7, 0/53, 0/12
Finding the Zeros of Rational Functions
1. Factor the numerator and the denominator of the
rational function f if possible.
2. Identify the restrictions of the rational function f.
(The restrictions are the values of the
independent variable that make the denominator
equal to zero.)
3. Identify the values of the independent variable
that make the numerator equal to zero.
4. The zeros of the rational function f are the values
of the independent variable that make the
numerator zero but are not restrictions of the
rational function of f.
Examples:
Find the zeros of the rational functions:

2
x  6x  8
1. f ( x)  2
x  x 6
2
x  4x  4
2. f ( x )  2
x 4
Solution for #1:
Step 1: Step 2:
Factor the Identify the
numerator and restrictions.
denominator of f. x  2 0
x2  6x  8 x  2
f ( x)  2
x  x 6 x  3 0
( x  2)( x  4) x 3

( x  2)( x  3)
Solution for #1:
Step 3: Step 4:
identify the identify the
values of x that make zeros of f.
the numerator equal x  4
to zero.
x  2 0
x  2
x  4 0
x  4
Solution for #2:
Step 1: Step 2:
Factor the Identify the
numerator and restrictions.
denominator of f. x  2 0
2
x  4x  4 x  2
f ( x) 
x2  4 x  2 0
2
( x  2) x 2

( x  2)( x  2)
Solution for #1:
Step 3: Step 4:
identify the identify the
values of x that make zeros of f.
the numerator equal
to zero.
x  2 0 The function has no
zero.
x 2
Solution for #1:
Step 1: Step 2:
Factor the Identify the
numerator and restrictions.
denominator of f. x  2 0
x2 x 2
f ( x)  2
x  3x  2 x  1 0
x2
 x 1
( x  2)( x  1)
Solution for #1:
Step 3: Step 4:
identify the identify the
values of x that make zeros of f.
the numerator equal x  2
to zero.
x  2 0
x  2
Solution for #2:
Step 1: Step 2:
Factor the Identify the
numerator and restrictions.
denominator of f. 2
x  2 0
x2  4
f ( x)  2 2
 x  2
x 2
( x  2)( x  2) x  2
 2
x 2 x  2 ; x  2
Solution for #2:
Step 3: Step 4:
identify the identify the
values of x that make zeros of f.
the numerator equal
to zero.
x  2
x  2 0
x 2
x  2
x  2 0
x 2
Intercepts of Rational Functions
Intercepts are x- or y-coordinates of the
points at which a graph crosses the x-axis or
y-axis, respectively.
y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point
where the graph crosses the y-axis.
x-intercept is the x-coordinate of the point
where the graph crosses the x-axis.
Rule:
1. To find the y-intercept, subtitute zero for x
and solve for y or f(x).
2. To find the x-intercept, subtitute zero for y
and solve for x.
Examples:
Find the intercepts of the following rational
functions:
x 8
1. f ( x ) 
x 2
2
x  5x  6
2. f ( x )  2
x  2x  3
2
x 9
3. f ( x )  2
x 3
Solution for #1:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
0 8 x 8
f ( 0)  0
0 2 x 2
8 0 x  8

2 x  8
 4

The y-intercept is -4. The x-intercept is -8.

Solution for #2:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
2
(0)  5(0)  6 x 2  5x  6
f ( 0)  2 0 2
(0)  2(0)  3 x  2x  3
6 0 x 2  5 x  6

3 0 ( x  2)( x  3)
2 x 2; x 3
The y-intercept is 2. The x-intercept is 2
& 3.
Solution for #3:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
2
2
(0)  9 x 9
f ( 0)  2 0 2
(0)  3 x 3
9 0 x 2  9

3  9 x 2
 3 There is no solution
for x2+9=0. Hence,
The y-intercept is 2. there is no x-intercept.
Try This:
Find the intercepts of the following rational
functions:
x2
1. f ( x )  2
x  3x  2
x 5
2. f ( x )  2
x  25
2
x  4
3. f ( x )  2
x  2
Solution for #1:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
02 x2
f ( 0)  2 0 2
(0)  3(0)  2 x  3x  2
2 0 x  2

2 x  2
1

The y-intercept is 1. The x-intercept is -2.

Solution for #2:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
0 5 x 2
f ( 0)  2 0 2
(0)  25 x  25
5 0 x  2

 25 x 2
1

5
The y-intercept is The x-intercept is 2.
1/5.
Solution for #3:
For y-intercept: For x-intercept:
2
(0)  4 2
x 4 x 2
f ( 0)  2 0 2
(0)  2 x 2
x 2; x  2
4 2
0 x  4

2  x 2  4
2
The y-intercept is The x-intercept is 2
1/5. & -2.