MACRONUT

RIENTS
AND
MICRONUT
RIENTS
NUTRIENTS
substances obtained from food and used in the body
to provide energy and structural materials and to serve as
regulating agents to promote growth, maintenance, and
repair. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some
diseases
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
nutrients a person must obtain from food because
the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient
quantities to meet physiological needs
ORGANIC INORGANIC
● CHO ● WATER
● CHON ● MINERALS
● VITAMINS
● FATS
TWO TYPES OF NUTRIENTS
MACRONUTRI MICRONUTRIE
ENTS NTS
● nutrients that the ● required in smaller
body requires in amounts
large amounts ● Water, Vitamins,
● provide the body Minerals
with energy
(calories)
● CHO, CHON, Fats
 MACRONUTRIENTS
According to Calabrese, Gibby, Meinke, Revilla, &
Titchena (2019), nutrients that are needed in large
amounts are called macronutrients.

Macronutrients are carbon-based compounds

that can be metabolically processed into cellular
energy through changes in their chemical bonds.
The chemical energy is converted into cellular
energy known as ATP, which the body utilizes to
perform work and conduct essential functions.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
MACRONUTRIENTS
● CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)
● PROTEIN (CHON)
● FATS
CARBOHYDRATES
• are organic compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Constitute the chief source of energy for
all body functions.
• Requirements are 50–60% of total kcal
intake per day.
 Classifications of CHO
1.Monosaccharides (simple
sugars)
2.Disaccharides (double sugars)
3.Polysaccharides (mainly
starches)
All carbohydrates must be reduced to simple sugars
(monosaccharides) in the intestine before they can be
absorbed into the bloodstream
A. Monossacharides
> Simple sugars (simplest
form of carbohydrates)
> They are sweet and since
they require no digestion,
they can be absorbed
1. Glucose
directly (Dextrose)
into the bloodstream
from2.the
Fructose
small(levulose)
intestine
3. Galactose
1. Glucose (Dextrose)
- blood sugar
- principal form in which CHO is
used by the body
- abundant in fruits, sweet corn,
and corn syrup
- fuels the work of body’s cells
- only glucose can provide
energy for the brain, other nerve
cells, and developing red blood cells
2. Fructose (Levulose)
- sweetest of simple sugars
- found in honey, most fruits and
some vegetables
- It is converted into glucose in
the body
3. Galactose
- not found free in foods
- produced from lactose (milk
sugar) by digestion and is converted
into glucose in the body
- Galactosemia, a condition of
inability to metabolize galactose
B. Dissacharides
> Double sugars (made up of
2 monosaccharides)
> They are sweet an, unlike
monosaccharides, they must
be1.
changed
Sucrose to simple sugar
by2.
hydrolysis
Lactose before Hydrolysis
they
- any chemical
can be absorbed
3. Maltose reaction in which a molecule of
water breaks one or more
chemical bonds
1. Sucrose
- ordinary table sugar –
granulated, powdered, or brown
- processed from cane and beet
sugar
- found in fruits, vegetables,
syrups, and sweet food production
- converted into glucose and
galactose upon digestion
- composed of glucose and
2. Lactose
- milk sugar
- found in milk and milk products
except cheese
- converted into glucose and
galactose in digestion and is less
soluble and less sweet than sucrose
3. Maltose
- not found free in foods
- produced by hydrolysis of
starch and is converted into glucose
in digestion
- occurs in malt products and in
germinating cereals
- less sweet compared to
glucose and sucrose
C. Polysacharides
> Composed of many
molecules of simple sugars
> Commonly known as
1. Starch
complex sugars
2. Dextrins
3. Cellulose
4. Pectins
5. Glycogens
1. Starch
- most significant
polysaccharides in human nutrition
- major food sources include
cereal grains, potatoes and other root
vegetables, and legumes
- converted entirely into glucose
upon digestion
- more complex than sugars
- require longer time to digest
2. Dextrins
- not found free in foods
- formed as intermediate
products in the breakdown of starch
3. Cellulose
- forms the framework of plants
found in unrefined grains, vegetables
and fruits
- non-digestible by humans
- provides important bulk in the
diet which helps move digestive food
mass along and stimulates peristalsis
- main sources are stems and
leaves of vegetables, seed and grain
4. Pectins
- non-digestible, colloidal
polysaccharides having a gel quality
- sources include mostly fruits
and are often used as base for jellies
- used to treat diarrhea as they
absorb toxins and bacteria in the
intestine
5. Glycogen
- animal starch
- formed from glucose and
stored in the liver and muscle tissues
- food sources include meats and
sea foods
- the hormones glucagons help
the liver convert glycogen into
glucose every time the body needs
energy
 Sugars Starches
Kinds and Sources Kinds and Sources
Monosaccharides Polysaccharides
1. Glucose—blood sugar 1. Starch—cereals, grains, vegetables
2. Fructose—a sugar found in fruit 2. Dextrin—digestion product, infant formula
3. Galactose—digestion product 3. Cellulose*—stems, leaves coverings, seeds
Disaccharides skins, hulls
1. Sucrose—table sugar 4. Pectin*—fruits
2. Lactose—a sugar found in milk 5. Glycogen—muscle, and liver
3. Maltose—germinating seed *Nondigestible
● Carbohydrates are also good sources of fiber, which is
the non-digestible part of plant foods. It is nutritionally
significant in gastrointestinal functioning.

● FIBER is classified as soluble or insoluble.

○ Insoluble fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose) is
found in legumes, vegetables, whole grains, fruits,
and seeds.
○ Soluble fibers are the pectins, gums, mucilages,
and algae and are found in vegetables, fruits, oats
and oat bran, legumes, rye, and barley.
Carbohydrate Absorption &
Storage
● Digestion begins in mouth, little takes place in the stomach, is
completed in the small intestine.

● Leave no waste for kidneys to eliminate.

● Absorption takes place in the villi.

● Excess converted to glycogen and stored in the liver or stored as fat.

Functions of Carbohydrates
● Energy Source. Carbohydrates are the most economical and efficient
source of energy. They furnish 4 kcal/g of energy.
● Protein-Sparing Action. Carbohydrates prevent protein from being
used as energy. Carbohydrates, protein, and fat can all be used to
produce energy.
● Metabolic Functions. Under normal conditions, the tissues of the
central nervous system (especially the brain) can use only glucose as
an energy source.
● Cellulose and closely related insoluble, indigestible carbohydrates
aid in normal elimination.
● Supply significant quantities of proteins, minerals and B vitamins
● Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other disaccharides, and
this encourages the growth of the beneficial bacteria, resulting in a
laxative action
● Blood Glucose. Glucose is the form of sugar found in the blood, and
its control at normal blood levels is vital to health.
DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS
● Mild deficiency can cause weight loss and fatigue.

● Serious deficiency can cause ketosis.

● Excess can cause obesity, tooth decay, irritate the

lining of the stomach, or flatulence.
Sources of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates:
● Hard Candy
● Pastries
● Table Sugar
● Honey

Complex Carbohydrates:
Grain Products
■ Breads  Dry Beans
■ Rice  Peas
■ Pasta  Lentils
■ Vegetables  Some Fruits
■ Squash • Banana
■ Potatoes • Plantain
■ Corn
FATS
● Also known as lipids.

● Most concentrated energy source in diet.

● Provides 9 kcal per gram.

● Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and less oxygen than

carbohydrates.

● Recommended: no more than 25–30% of daily intake.

Summary of Fatty Acid Classification
● Saturated: Saturated food fats are generally solid at room
temperature and come from animal sources. Saturated fats are found in
whole milk and products made from whole milk; egg yolk; meat; meat
fat (bacon, lard); coconut oil and palm oil; chocolate; regular
margarine; and hydrogenated vegetable shortenings.

● Unsaturated: Unsaturated food fats are generally liquid at room

temperature and come from plant sources.
■ Monounsaturated: Sources of monounsaturated fats are
olive oil and most nuts. Diets rich in saturated fat and
cholesterol can lead to elevated blood cholesterol levels.

■ Polyunsaturated: Sources of polyunsaturated fats are

safflower, sunflower, corn, cottonseed, soybean, and sesame
oil; salad dressings made from these oils; special margarine
that contain a high percentage of such oils; and fatty fish such
as mackerel, salmon, and herring.
● Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats appear to lower blood
cholesterol levels.

● Cholesterol is a fatlike substance (lipid) that is a key component of

cell membranes and a precursor of bile acids and steroid hormones.
Cholesterol travels in the circulation in spherical particles containing
both lipids and proteins called lipoproteins.

● A lipoprotein is made up of fats (cholesterol, triglycerides, fatty

acids, etc.), protein, and a small number of other substances. The
cholesterol level in blood plasma is determined partly by inheritance
and partly by the fat and cholesterol content of the diet. Organ
meats and egg yolk are very rich sources of cholesterol; shrimp is a
moderately rich source. Other sources include meat, fish, poultry,
whole milk, and foods made from whole milk or butterfat.
Three Major Classes Of Lipoproteins
LDL: Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL) are the primary culprits in
cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and typically include 60%–70% of the
total serum cholesterol.

VLDL: Very-Low-Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) is composed mainly of

triglycerides containing 10%–15% of the total serum cholesterol.

HDL: High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) usually contain 20%–30% of the

total cholesterol, and their levels are inversely correlated with risk for
coronary heart disease (CHD).
CLASSIFICATION
● Triglycerides (true fats) are composed of one
glycerol molecule attached to three fatty-acid
molecules.

● Phospholipids (lipoids) are composed of glycerol,

fatty acids, and phosphorus.

● Cholesterol (sterol) liver produces over 1000 mg

every day.
Functions of Fat
● Provides concentrated source of energy.

● Needed to absorb fat-soluble vitamins.

● Major component of cell membranes and myelin sheaths.

● Improves flavor, delays emptying time.

● Protects and helps hold organs in place.

● Insulates the body.

Absorption and Storage

● No breakdown occurs in the mouth, very little

digestion occurs in the stomach.

● Digestion begins in the small intestine.

● Final products of fat digestion are fatty acids and

glycerol.

● 95% absorbed in small intestine.

● Excess fats stored as adipose tissue.

Deficiency and Excess

● Deficiency occurs when fats provide less than 10%

of the total daily kcal requirement.

● May result in eczema, retarded growth, weight loss.

● Excess can lead to overweight and heart disease.

Sources of Fat
● Animal fats–lard, butter, milk, cream, egg yolks,
meat, poultry, and fish.

● Plant fats–corn oil, safflower oil, olive oil, cottonseed

oil, peanut oil, palm oil, and coconut oil, nuts, and
avocado.
PROTEINS
● Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
(CHON).

● The only nutrient that can build, repair, and

maintain body tissues.

● Daily requirement for average adults is 0.8g of

protein for each kilogram of body weight.
Functions Of Proteins
● Provide amino acids needed to build, repair, and
maintain body tissues.

● Assist in regulating fluid balance.

● Vital part of enzymes, hormones, blood plasma.

● Used to build antibodies.

● Can be converted to glucose, for energy.

Protein Digestion and absorption

● Begins in the stomach.

● Most digestion takes place in small intestine.

● End product is amino acids, absorbed into the blood by

the villi in the small intestine.

● Excess amino acids are converted to glucose, glycogen,

or fat for storage.
Sign of Deficiency and Excess

● Muscle wasting.

● Edema.

● Lethargy and depression.

● Marasmus (inadequate energy intake in all forms, including

protein) and Kwashiorkor (protein deficiency with adequate
energy)

● Excess can contribute to heart disease, and may be

linked to colon cancer, osteoporosis, and kidney
damage.
 KWASHIORKOR MARASMUS
1. hair changes 1. normal hair
2. thin muscles 2. old man’s face
3. misery 3. thin muscles
4. fat present 4. thin fat
5. edema 5. no edema
6. underweight 6. very underweight
Vitamins and Minerals

■ They are needed in small amounts; toxicity may occur with over
consumption.

■ They are best received from a balanced, varied diet.

■ Vitamins can be destroyed by heat, light, and exposure to air.

■ Minerals cannot be destroyed because they are single elements

rather than compounds.

■ Both vitamins and minerals can be lost when foods are cooked
in water.
VITAMINS
● Organic compounds essential to life and health.

● Regulate body processes, needed in very small

amounts.

● No fuel value but required for metabolism of fats,

carbohydrates, proteins.

● Functions are unique to each vitamin.

● Fat soluble:
○ A, D, E, and K.
○ Usually carried in the fatty portion of food.
○ Can be stored by the body.

● Water soluble:
○ B vitamins and C.
○ Not stored in the body; excesses excreted in
the urine.
Digestion of Vitamins
● Vitamins do not require digestion.

● Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed into the lymphatic

system, excesses are stored in the liver and adipose
tissue.

● Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly into

the circulatory system, and excesses are excreted in
urine.
Deficiency/ Excess
● Vitamin deficiencies can occur and result in disease.

● Vitamins consumed in excess amounts can be toxic to the body.

Minerals
● Inorganic elements that help regulate body processes
and /or serve as structural components of the body.

● Major minerals–more than 100 mg/day.

● Trace minerals–less than 100 mg/day.

● Functions are unique to each individual mineral.

Classification and Sources
● Classified as major minerals or trace minerals.

● Found in water and in unprocessed foods.

● Some foods are enriched—some vitamins are added

to them.

● Supplements may be needed during growth periods,

some clinical situations.
Digestion
The amount of a mineral absorbed by the body is influenced by:

● Type of food

● Need of body

● Health of absorbing tissue

Deficiency and Excess
● Deficiency signs unique to each mineral.

● Excesses can lead to toxicity.

● Concentrated forms of minerals should be used only on

advice of a physician.

● Excesses can cause hair loss, changes in the blood,

hormones, bones, muscles, and nearly all tissues.
Vitamins
● The four fat-soluble vitamins are:
1. vitamin A (retinol)
2. vitamin D (cholecalciferol)
3. vitamin E (tocopherol)
4. vitamin K (menadione)
• The nine water-soluble vitamins are:
1. vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 5. vitamin B6
(pyridoxine)
• Vitamin B complex: 6. vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
2. vitamin B1 (thiamin) 7. folacin or folic acid
3. vitamin B2 (riboflavin) 8. pantothenic acid
4. niacin 9. biotin
 The solubility of vitamins is directly related to their retention in
foods during preparation.

Water-soluble vitamins are lost into the cooking water. For more
excellent vitamin retention, the following general guidelines apply:
● Use only a small quantity of cooking water.
● Use leftover cooking water for making gravies, soups, and sauces.
Do not discard it.
● Minimize cutting food into pieces.
● Use the shortest cooking time. Cooking with a lid helps to shorten
cooking time.
 Fat-soluble vitamins are not affected by cooking and
preparation in water, but maybe destroyed by:
○ high cooking heat, sun drying, or other forms of dehydration.
○ oxidation that accompanies rancidity in the fat. Fat-soluble
vitamins are found in fat.

Excess fat-soluble vitamins are stored in body fat and organs,

especially the liver. This storage ability:
○ can delay deficiency for several months, even if the host does
not receive such vitamins in the diet.
○ means that the host needs a dietary supply every other day
instead of daily.
○ does not say that the host is immune to large doses. Megadoses
are toxic to the body.
 The Water-Soluble Vitamins

1. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

The Functions are:
1. Essential in the formation of collagen, a protein that binds cells together.
2. Needed to heal wounds build new tissue, and provide strength to supporting tissue.
3. Aids formation of bone matrix and tooth dentin.
4. Absorbs iron, which promotes prothrombin formation.
5. Helps maintain the elasticity of blood vessels and capillaries.
6. Acts as an antioxidant, protecting the cells from oxidation.
7. Has a sparing effect on several vitamins, especially A, B, and E

Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male: 90 mg/d RDA female: 75 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
chili peppers, green peppers, parsley, broccoli, tomatoes, white potatoes (with skin on), sweet
kale, cabbage, strawberries, papaya, oranges, potatoes, honeydew, melon, pineapple
lemons, grapefruit, guava, tangerines,
cantaloupe, watermelon The only animal source of vitamin C is liver
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
acute deficiency— scurvy, delayed wound (specific effects depend on the individual’s
healing, failure to thrive (children), decayed and tolerance level), rebound scurvy, interference
breaking teeth, iron deficient, gingivitis, anemia with certain drugs, gastrointestinal upsets,
(if iron intake is also low), low resistance to and diarrhea, bladder irritations, kidney
infection (especially infants), small vessel stones, interference with anticoagulant drug
hemorrhage seen under the skin, easy bruising therapy
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin C are:
1. Pregnancy and lactation
2. Malnutrition
3. Alcoholism/drug addiction
4. Infections, burns, injuries, fever
5. Certain drug therapies, e.g., Isoniazid
6. High-stress conditions
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin C are:
1. Vitamin C is easily destroyed by heat, storage, exposure to air, dehydration alkali (such as
baking soda), and lengthy exposure to copper and iron utensils.
2. Vitamin C deficiency is rare in developed countries but can occur in any cases of serious
neglect such as psychiatric problems, substance abuse, advanced age, and lack of nutrition
knowledge.
3. Extra care must be taken in the preparation of foods containing vitamin C to prevent excessive
loss:
a. use a small amount of water
b. avoid prolonged cooking
c. cut-up just before use
d. avoid leftovers
e. cook quickly, covered or steamed
2. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

The Functions are:

1. Releases energy from fat and carbohydrate.
2. It Helps transmits nerve impulses.
3. Breaks down alcohol.

Food Sources
4. Promotes better appetite and functioning of the digestive tract.

For adults 19–30 years

RDA male: 1.2 mg/d RDA female: 1.1 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, enriched cereals, enriched pasta,
soybeans, wheat germ, peanuts, animal enriched or brown rice, whole grains,
sources: liver, kidney, pork oatmeal
animal sources: eggs, poultry

Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:

1. acute: beriberi no evidence of toxicity in excess
2. subacute: loss of appetite, vomiting, amounts. May create a shortage of
leg cramps, mental depression, other B vitamins if taken exclusively
edema, weight loss
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin B1 are:
1. Any condition that increases metabolic rate
2. Alcoholism
3. Old age (whether elderly is on low calories diets or not)
4. Pregnancy and lactation growth periods
5. People on fad diets
6. Illness/stress conditions
7. Athletic training (whenever extra need for kcal)

Specific Characteristics of Vitamin B1 are:

8. The B vitamins have four common properties:
a. All of them function as coenzymes in biochemical reactions.
b. All are water-soluble.
c. All are natural parts of yeast and liver.
d. All promote the growth of bacteria.
9. If there is a deficiency in one of the B vitamins, there will be deficiencies in the
others.
10. The B vitamins function together— an excess of one creates a greater need for the
others.
11. Converted rice contains more thiamin than other types of rice.
3. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

The Functions are:

1. Releases energy from fat, carbohydrate, and protein.
2. Essential for healthy skin and growth.
3. Promotes visual health.
4. Functions in the production of corticosteroids and red blood cells.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male: 1.3 mg/d RDA female: 1.1 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
Milk, cheese, wheat germ, yeast, liver, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dark green
and kidney leafy vegetables, dry beans and peas,
nuts
Deficiency may result to: Excess
lesions around the mouth and nose, hair no evidence yet that this nutrient is toxic
loss, scaly skin, failure to thrive (children), in large amounts
light sensitivity, clouding of the cornea of
the eye, weight loss, glossitis
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin B2 are:
1. Increase in body size, metabolic rate, or growth rates, such as pregnancy, lactation, and growth
2. Alcoholism
3. Poverty
4. Old age
5. Strict vegetarian diets that prohibit meat, eggs, and milk
6. Stress and malabsorption of nutrients
7. Any condition where there is a loss of gastric secretions (achlorhydria) may precipitate a deficiency
8. Following burns or any surgical procedure where there is extensive protein loss
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin B2 are:
1. No evidence that the requirement for B2 goes up as kcal rise.
2. Foods high in calcium are usually high in B2.
3. Before riboflavin is absorbed it must be phosphorylated (combined with phosphorus). Both are found in milk and cheese.
4. Is sensitive to light; should be kept in opaque containers.
5. Cooking and drying may enhance availability.
6. Only partially water-soluble.
7. If a deficiency occurs, multiple B vitamins are given because of their interrelationships.
8. B2 is destroyed by alkaline.
4. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

The Functions are:

1. Forms reactions that break down and rebuild amino acids.
2. Produces antibodies and red blood cells.
3. Aids functioning of the nervous system and regeneration of nerve tissue.
4. Changes one fatty acid into another.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male and female: 1.3 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
Yeast, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, meats, poultry, fish, whole grains, nuts
wheat, bran, avocado, banana
animal source: liver
Deficiency may result to: Excess
decreased antibody production, anemia, no toxicity reported with megadoses, but
vomiting, failure to thrive (children), skin dependency may be induced with large
lesions, liver and kidney problems, central doses
nervous system abnormalities: confusion
irritability depression convulsions
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin B6 are:
1. Increased protein intake
2. Pregnancy
3. Use of oral contraceptive agents, isoniazid
4. Advancing age
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin B6 are:
1. The essential fatty acid, linoleic, is converted to arachidonic acid.
2. Converts tryptophan to niacin.
3. Involved in conversions and catabolism of all the amino acids.
5. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)*
The Functions are:
1. Aids proper formation of red blood cells.
2. Part of the RNA-DNA nucleic acids; is therefore essential for the normal function of all
body cells, especially the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system.
3. Bone marrow formation.
4. Used in folacin metabolism.
5. Prevention of pernicious anemia.
Food Sources are:
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male and female: 2.4 µg/d
Animal products are the main food sources: clams/oysters, organ meats, eggs, shrimp,
chicken, pork, hotdogs
Deficiency may result to: Excess
Glossitis, anorexia, weakness, weight loss, no toxicity observed; but at high doses,
mental and nervous symptoms, abdominal pain, vitamins are considered drugs and often
constipation/diarrhea, macrocytic anemia and if create imbalances in the functioning of other
intrinsic factor also missing: pernicious anemia nutrients.

Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin B12 are:

1. Strict vegetarian diet (vegans)
2. Malabsorption
3. Stomach injury
4. Total gastrectomy
5. Pregnancy and lactation
6. Old age
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin 12 are:
1. The normal liver will store enough B12 to last for two to five years.
2. B12 is made only by microorganisms in the intestines.
3. Only 30%–70% of what is consumed is absorbed.
4. B12 must bind to the intrinsic factor, which is a protein secreted by the stomach
lining.
5. Calcium is also necessary for this reaction.
6. Absorption of B12 is influenced by body levels of B6.
7. The elderly are at the highest risk of developing pernicious anemia.
8. Smooth, bland foods are indicated for megaloblastic and pernicious anemia (the
mouth is sore).
9. All foods needed for blood cell production included.
6. Niacin

The Functions are:

1. Releases energy from carbohydrates, protein, fat.
2. Synthesizes proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Synthesizes fatty acids from glucose.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male: 16 mg/d RDA female: 14 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
Yeast, peanuts and peanut butter, soybeans, meats, nuts, wheat germ, enriched cereals,
sesame seeds, sunflower seeds bread, pasta
animal sources: beef, poultry, fish, organ meats
especially high

Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:

subacute: weakness, indigestion, anorexia, lack (megadose treatment for certain conditions)
of energy, cracked skin, sore mouth and tongue, severe flushing, glucose intolerance,
failure to thrive (children), insomnia, irritability, gastrointestinal disorders, irregular heartbeat,
mental depression; damage to the skin, vision disturbances, liver damage
gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous
system
Conditions Requiring Increase of Niacin
Whenever more kcal is consumed, e.g., pregnancy/lactation, illness, stress,
chronic alcoholism, intestinal disorders
Specific Characteristics of Niacin are:
1. Niacin is synthesized in the body from tryptophan, an essential
amino acid. Diets adequate in protein are adequate in niacin.
2. Niacin is stable in foods; it can withstand reasonable periods of
heat, cooling, and storage.
3. Niacin is water-soluble; use the cooking liquids (do not drain off).
7. Folic Acid (Folacin, Folate)

The Functions are:

1. Synthesizes the nucleic acids (RNA DNA).
2. Essential for a breakdown of most of the amino acids.
3. Necessary for proper formation of red blood cells.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male and female: 400 µg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
liver/kidney, yeast, oranges/orange juice, green melons, sweet potato, pumpkin
leafy vegetables, asparagus, broccoli, wheat
germ, nuts
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. slows growth interferes with cell no toxic effect from megadose, but will mask
regeneration pernicious anemias, vitamin supplements may
2. Macrocytic Anemia (red blood cells are large not contain more than 0.1 mg/folacin (by law)
and too few and have less Hgb than normal)
3. Megaloblastic Anemia (young red blood cells
fail to mature, reduction in white blood cells;
also histidine, an amino acid, not utilized)
Conditions Requiring Increase in Folic Acid are:
1. Whenever the metabolic rate is high: pregnancy/lactation, infections/fever, growth of malignant tumors, hyperthyroidism,
anemias
2. Excess alcohol intake
3. Use of oral contraceptive agents
4. Malabsorptive disorders
5. Certain other diseases, e.g., leukemia
6. Hodgkin’s disease cancer
7. Use of drugs in anticonvulsant therapy
8. When chemotherapy is used for cancer
Specific Characteristics of Folic Acid are:
1. When there is a folic acid deficiency, the diet must include all the other nutrients needed to produce red blood cells, i.e.,
protein copper iron B12/vitamin C
2. Persons with macrocytic or megaloblastic anemia have sore mouths and tongues; soft bland foods or liquids may be
needed.
3. Prolonged cooking destroys most of the folacin.
4. Folic acid deficiency is common in the third trimester of pregnancy; the requirement is six times the normal amount.
8. Pantothenic Acid

The Functions are:

1. Helps release energy from carbohydrates, fat, and protein.
2. Aids in the formation of cholesterol, hemoglobin, and other hormones.
3. Assists in synthesizing certain fatty acids.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years AI male and female: 5 mg/d
Richest Sources:
1. liver, kidney, fish, whole grains,
2. is found in every plant and animal food
Deficiency may result to: Excess
1. Induced deficiencies cause headaches, no toxicity observed
insomnia, nausea, vomiting, tingling of
hands and feet
2. poor coordination
Conditions Requiring Increase of Pantothenic Acid
Rare situations severe malnutrition (e.g., prisoner of war, starving children)

Specific Characteristics of Pantothenic Acid are:

1. Most commonly occurring of all the vitamins
2. Name taken from the Greek and means “everywhere”
9. Biotin

The Function is:

Acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of fat and carbohydrate.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
AI male and female: 30 µg/d
Richest Sources:
1. liver/kidney, egg yolk, milk, yeast
2. found in almost all foods
Deficiency may result to:
uncommon; intestinal bacteria produce biotin. can be induced large-scale use of raw
eggs as in tube feedings, etc., may cause the development of symptoms such as
nausea, muscle pain, dermatitis, glossitis, abnormal EKG (electrocardiogram),
elevated cholesterol level
Conditions Requiring Increase in Biotin are:
1. Anyone consuming raw eggs in quantity
2. Some infants under the age of 6 mo.
Specific Characteristics of Biotin is:
1. Biotin can be bound by avidin, a protein in raw egg, and becomes unavailable to
the body.
 The Fat-Soluble Vitamins

1. Vitamin A (Retinol)
The Functions are:
1. Enables the eye to adjust to changes in light (formation of rhodopsin in the retina).
2. Helps maintain healthy skin and mucous membranes as well as the cornea of the eye.
3. Develops healthy teeth and bones.
4. Aids reproductive processes.
5. Synthesizes glycogen in the liver.
6. Regulates fat metabolism in the formation of cholesterol.
7. Aids formation of cortisone in the adrenal gland.

Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male: 900 µg/d RDA female: 700 µg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
Liver, eggs, carrots, cantaloupe, sweet potato, tomatoes (and juice) butter, margarine,
winter, squash, pumpkin, apricots, broccoli, peaches
green pepper, dark green leafy vegetables
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
night blindness (inability to see in dim light), highly toxic in excessive doses (1– 3,000 µg
keratinization (formation of a horny layer of RE/kg/ body weight), accumulates in the liver,
skin, cracking of skin), xerophthalmia (cornea causing enlargement, vomiting, skin rashes,
of the eye becomes opaque, causing hair loss, diarrhea, cramps, joint pain, dry
blindness), faulty bone growth, defective tooth scaly skin, anorexia, abnormal bone growth,
enamel, less resistance to decay, decreased cerebral edema
resistance to infection, impaired wound healing
Conditions Requiring Increase in Vitamin A are:
1. Self-neglect due to psychiatric disturbances, old age, alcoholism, lack of nutritional knowledge
2. Pregnancy and lactation
3. Protein-deficient diets
4. Any condition of fat malabsorption
5. Infectious hepatitis
6. Gallbladder diseases
7. Children and pregnant women in poverty
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin A are:
1. Preformed vitamin A (retinol) is found only in animal sources.
2. Provitamin A (beta carotene) is found in plant sources and is a yellow-orange group of pigments. It is called a precursor.
3. Xerophthalmia is an important world health problem: more than 1,000,000 children go blind yearly, especially in developing
countries.
4. Very low-fat diets decrease absorption.
5. Vitamin A must be bound to protein for transport.
6. Is stable at usual cooking temperatures. Cover pan recommended.
7. Hypervitaminosis is usually from megavitamin supplements.
8. Excess intake of foods with beta carotene may discolor skin but is not harmful.
9. Beta carotene is being considered for the prevention of certain types of skin cancer.
2. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)

The Functions are:

1. Promotes the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the intestine.
2. Helps maintain blood calcium and phosphorus levels for normal bone calcification.
3. Aids in the formation of bone matrix.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
AI male and female: 5 µg/d
Sources are: Primary food source are:
irradiated fortified vitamin D milk, minimal fish, liver (cod liver, halibut liver) oils
amounts present in fish, egg yolk, butter
Synthetic form are: Principal source are:
from irradiation of plants; used most in sunlight; ultraviolet rays penetrate a
supplements and dairy products cholesterol-like substance in the skin
which is converted to active vitamin D in
the kidneys
Severe Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
rickets, serious decalcification of bones, high blood calcium levels, kidney
osteomalacia (tender, painful bones in damage, growth retardation, vomiting,
adults), tooth decay diarrhea, weight loss
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin D are:
1. Invalids (housebound)
2. Individuals who are rarely exposed to sunlight
3. Premature infants
4. Children of strict vegetarians who drink no fortified milk
5. Pregnancy and lactation
6. Early childhood
7. Breast-fed infants
8. Any disease that interferes with fat absorption or vitamin D absorption
9. Chronic renal failure
10. Certain drug therapies that interfere with absorption
11. Dark-skinned people
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin D are:
1. Ultraviolet light is filtered out by smog, fog, smoke, and window glass.
2. Milk, unless fortified, is a poor source of vitamin D.
3. As much as 95% of ultraviolet rays for conversion to vitamin D may be prevented in dark-skinned races.
4. Vitamin D permits 30 to 35% absorption of ingested calcium: without it, only 10% is absorbed.
3. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

The Functions are:

1. The only demonstrated function is as an antioxidant (protects vitamin A and unsaturated fats
from destruction; protects red and white blood cells from destruction by preventing oxidation
of cell membrane).
2. Protects vitamin C and fatty acids. Believed to enter into biochemical changes that release
energy.
3. Assists in cellular respiration.
4. Helps synthesize other body substances.
5. Helps maintain intact cell membranes.
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
RDA male and female: 15 mg/d
Excellent Sources are: Good Sources are:
(plant) (animal)
vegetable oils, margarine, liver, codfish, butter, human milk
shortenings, sunflower seeds, wheat
germ, nuts, whole grains
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
none observed except in premature headache, nausea, fatigue,
infants or SGA infants dizziness, blurred vision, skin
changes, thrombophlebitis
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin E:
1. Premature infants (or SGA)
2. Whenever greater amounts of polyunsaturated fats are ingested
3. Possibly in disorders resulting in fat malabsorption
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin E are:
1. Does not travel well across the placenta of pregnant women.
2. Is usually given with vitamin A when there is a vitamin A deficiency.
3. Vitamin E content of breast milk is adequate for the infant.
4. Many animal disorders have responded to vitamin E therapy but have not been effective for
humans. For this reason, vitamin E is the most controversial of all vitamin therapies.
5. Contrary to popular opinion, excess intake creates side effects.
6. The role of vitamin E as an antioxidant is being linked to retardation of the aging process.
4. Vitamin K (Menadione)

The Functions are:

1. Prothrombin formation (prothrombin is a protein that converts eventually to fibrin, the key
substance in blood clotting)
2. Blood coagulation
Food Sources
For adults 19–30 years
AI male: 120 µg/d AI female: 90 µg/d
The two sources are:
1. intestinal bacteria and
2. food sources: dark green vegetables, cauliflower, tomatoes, soybeans, wheat
bran
Small amounts in egg yolk, organ meats, cheese
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
hemorrhaging when blood does not clot 1. irritation of the skin and respiratory
tract with the synthetic form,
menadione
2. toxicity found only in newborns who
are administered doses above 5 mg
3. causes an excessive breakdown of
red blood cells
4. brain damage
Conditions Requiring Increase of Vitamin K are:
1. Newborn infants
2. Persons on antibiotics
3. Persons with diseases where there is chronic diarrhea or poor absorption
4. Possibly before surgery
Specific Characteristics of Vitamin K are:
1. Deficiency is rare since it is synthesized by intestinal bacteria. Food
sources not usually needed by healthy people.
2. The intestinal tract of the newborn may be free of bacteria for several
days.
3. Antibiotics kill the natural bacteria in the intestine.
ANTIOXIDANTS
As explained by Zimmerman & Snow (2012), antioxidants are substances that may protect your cells
against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules produced when your body breaks down food;
they are also provided by environmental exposures such as tobacco smoke and radiation.
Free radicals can damage cells and play a role in heart disease, cancer, and other disorders.
Antioxidants are molecules that can safely interact with free radicals and terminate or prevent the damaging
effects of free radicals. Antioxidant substances include the following:
1. Beta-carotene
2. Lutein
3. Lycopene
4. Selenium
5. Vitamin A
6. Vitamin C
7. Vitamin E
Antioxidants are found in many foods. These include fruits and vegetables, nuts, grains, and some
meats, poultry, and fish.
Health Benefits of Antioxidants
They are the following:
● Prevent or neutralize the harmful effects of free
radicals.
● Slow the aging process and protect against heart
disease and strokes.
● Prevent or interfere with the development of cancer.
● Retard induced cell damage from exercise and
enhance recovery.
MINERALS
● Only 4% of human body weight is composed
of minerals. The other 96% is composed of
water and the organic compounds of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that we know
as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Mineral Classifications
Minerals are divided into two general categories— macrominerals and
microminerals—based on the quantity in which they are found in the
body.
● The macrominerals are calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), sodium (Na), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), and chlorine (Cl).
● The microminerals are iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn),
fluorine (F), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), selenium (Se),
chromium (Cr), and molybdenum (Mo). Microminerals are frequently
referred to as "trace elements" because they are present in the body
in such small quantities (less than .005% of body weight). These
essential trace elements are required daily in the body in the
milligram range
 Macromin
1. Calcium (Ca)
erals
The Functions are:
1. Aids bone and tooth formation.
2. Maintains serum calcium levels.
3. Aids blood clotting.
4. Aids muscle contraction and relaxation.
5. Aids transmission of nerve impulses.
6. Maintains normal heart rhythm.
Food Sources are:
AI (mg/d)
Male & female (19–30 y): 1000
Milk Group: milk and cheeses, yogurt
Meat Group: egg (yolk), sardines, salmon
Vegetable Group: green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts
Grain Group: whole grains
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. rickets (childhood disorder of calcium 1. renal calculi (see Specific
metabolism from a vitamin D deficiency Characteristics)
resulting in stunted growth, bowed legs, 2. hypercalcemia (deposits in joints and soft
enlarged joints, especially legs, arms, and tissue)
hollow chest)
2. osteomalacia (adult form of rickets: a
softening of the bones)
3. osteoporosis (widespread disorder, especially
in women, wherein bones become thin, brittle,
diminish in size, and break)
4. slow blood clotting
5. tetany (see Specific Characteristics)
6. poor tooth formation
Conditions Requiring Increase of Calcium are:
1. Low intake (any age)
2. Low serum calcium due to: growth, pregnancy, lactation
3. Any condition that causes excess withdrawal, such as body casts, immobility, low estrogen levels

Specific Characteristics of Calcium are:

1. Body need is a major factor governing the amount of calcium absorbed. Normally 30 to 40% of dietary calcium is
absorbed.
2. The presence of vitamin D and lactose (milk sugar) enhances absorption.
3. An acid environment in the gastrointestinal tract enhances absorption (see acid-base balance).
4. Calcium in the bones and teeth is constantly withdrawn and replaced to keep the serum level stable.
5. The parathyroid hormone controls the regulation.
6. The intake of calcium and phosphorus should be a 1:1 ratio for optimal absorption.
7. Tetany is a condition resulting from a deficiency of calcium that causes muscle spasms in legs, arms.
8. Renal calculi are kidney stones. Ninety-six percent of all stones consist of calcium.
9. Overdoses of vitamin D can cause hypercalcemia, as can prolonged intake of antacids and milk.
10. Acute calcium deficiency does not usually occur without a lack of vitamin D and phosphorus also.
2. Phosphorus (P)

The Functions are:

1. Aids bone and tooth formation.
2. Maintains the metabolism of fat and carbohydrates.
3. Part of the compounds that act as buffers to control the pH of the blood.
Food Sources
RDA (mg/d)
Male & female (19–30 y): 700
Meat Group: cheeses (especially cheddar), peanuts, beef, pork, poultry, fish, eggs
Milk Group: milk and milk products
Vegetable/Fruit Group: all foods in this group
Grain: wheat, oats, barley, rice
Other: carbonated drinks contain large amounts of phosphorus
Deficiency may result to: Excess
rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis, slow blood clotting, same as calcium
poor tooth formation, disturbing acid-base balance

Conditions Requiring Increase of Phosphorus is:

Low intake, especially of protein foods, due to growth, pregnancy, lactation, illness
Specific Characteristics of Phosphorus are:
1. Approximately 80% of phosphorus is in bones and teeth in a ratio with the calcium of 2:1.
2. Aids in producing energy by phosphorylation.
3. Phospholipids assist in transferring substances in and out of the cells.
4. Phosphorus is more efficiently absorbed than calcium; approximately 70% is absorbed. Some factors that
enhance or decrease the absorption of calcium affect phosphorus the same way.
5. Consumption of antacids lowers phosphorus absorption.
6. Both calcium and phosphorus are released from the bone when serum levels are low.
7. Diets containing enough protein and calcium will be adequate in phosphorus.
 3. Sodium (Na)
The Functions are:
1. Maintains water balance.
2. Normalizes osmotic pressure.
3. Balances acid-base.
4. Regulates nerve impulses.
5. Regulates muscle contraction.
6. Aids in carbohydrate and protein absorption.
Food Sources are:
Estimated minimum requirement: 2000 mg for a 24-year-old adult
1. table salt (40% sodium)
2. milk and dairy foods
3. protein foods (fish, shellfish, meat, poultry, eggs)
4. processed foods: any containing baking soda, baking powder, and preservative additives
5. some drinking water is high in sodium
6. some vegetables contain fair sources of sodium: spinach, celery, beets, carrots
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
hyponatremia (low serum sodium): nausea, headache, anorexia, hypernatremia (high serum sodium), cardiovascular
muscle spasms, mental confusion, fluid, and electrolyte disturbances, hypertension, edema, mental confusion
imbalance

Conditions Requiring Increase of Sodium are:

1. Excessive loss of body fluids: heavy use of diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea, heavy perspiring, burns
2. Certain diseases: cystic fibrosis, Addison’s disease

Specific Characteristics of Sodium are:

1. More than half the body sodium is in the fluid surrounding the cells. It is the major cation of the extracellular fluid. Its
functions are very similar to potassium.
2. Extracellular fluids include fluid in the blood vessels, veins, arteries, and capillaries.
3. Sodium is well conserved by the body.
4. Hyponatremia due to inadequate intake is uncommon. A condition causing excess fluid loss such as described in column
4 (Conditions Requiring Increase) would be necessary.
5. Often a reduction in intake can be done simply by omitting salt added to food in the preparation or at the table.
Elimination of high-salt snack foods and foods preserved in salt also is helpful.
4. Potassium (K)

The Functions are:

1. Maintains protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
2. Maintains water balance.
3. Normalizes osmotic pressure.
4. Balances acid-base.
5. Regulates muscle activity
Food Sources are:
AI (g/d); male & female (19–30 y): 4.7
Meat Group: all foods (best sources: red meats, dark meat, poultry)
Vegetable/Fruit Group: all foods (especially oranges, bananas, prunes)
Grain Group: especially whole grains
Other: coffee (especially instant)
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. hypokalemia 1. hyperkalemia
2. fluid and electrolyte imbalances 2. renal failure
3. tissue breakdown 3. severe dehydration
4. shock
Conditions Requiring Increase of Potassium are:
1. Inadequate intake (starvation, imbalanced diets)
2. Gastrointestinal disorders, especially diarrhea
3. Burns, injuries
4. Diabetic acidosis
5. Chronic use of diuretics
6. Adrenal gland tumors
Specific Characteristics of Potassium are:
1. The major cation in the intracellular fluid.
2. Balances with sodium to maintain water balance and osmotic pressure.
3. When there are excess acid elements, potassium combines and neutralizes, thus
maintaining acid-base balance.
4. Potassium is poorly conserved by the body.
5. Hypokalemia is a condition where there is low serum potassium. It manifests itself
in muscle weakness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and rapid heartbeat
(tachycardia).
6. Hyperkalemia is a condition that causes serum potassium to rise to toxic levels. It
results in a weakened heart action that causes mental confusion, poor respiration,
numbness of extremities, and heart failure.
 5. Magnesium (Mg)

The Functions are:

1. Assists in the regulation of body fluids.
2. Activates enzymes.
3. Regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and protein.
4. Necessary for the formation of ATP (energy production).
5. Component of chlorophyll.
6. Works with Ca, P, and vitamin D in bone formation.

Food Sources are:

RDA Male (19–30 y): 400 mg/d RDA Female (19–30 y): 310 mg/d
grains, green vegetables, soybeans, milk, meat, poultry
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. fluid and electrolyte imbalance magnesemia
2. skin breakdown
Conditions Requiring Increase of Magnesium are:
1. Alcoholism
2. Inadequate intake of Ca, P, or any disease affecting their use
3. Growth
4. Pregnancy
5. Lactation
6. Prolonged use of diuretics

Specific Characteristics of Magnesium are:

1. Magnesium deficiencies occur most often in disease states such as cirrhosis of the liver, severe renal disease,
and toxemia of pregnant women.
2. American diets may be low in magnesium compared to RDAs if the diet is low in calories or contains mostly
highly refined and processed foods.
3. Magnesium and calcium share a control system in the kidneys.
 6. Chlorine (Cl)

The Functions are:

1. Aids in maintaining fluid-electrolyte balance and acid-base balance.
2. Aids in digestion and absorption of nutrients as a constituent of gastric secretion.
Food Sources are:
AI (g/d); male & female (19–30 y): 2.3
1. table salt (60% chloride)
2. protein foods: seafood, meats, eggs, milk
Deficiency severe Excess
Intake is not usually a problem unless a Intake is not usually a problem unless a
condition as in the next column exists. condition as in the next column exists.
Conditions Requiring Increase of Chlorine are:
1. Excessive vomiting
2. Aging (decreased gastric secretions)

Specific Characteristics of Chlorine are:

1. Chloride is the chief anion of the fluid outside the cells.
2. The gastric (stomach) contents are primarily hydrochloric acid (HCI).
3. Chloride is a buffer in a reaction in the body known as the chloride shift. This has the effect of
maintaining the delicate pH balance of the blood.
 7. Sulfur (S)

The Functions are:

1. Participates in detoxifying harmful compounds.
2. Component of amino acids.
Food Sources
RDA: not established
protein foods that contain the amino acids methionine, cysteine, and cystine
(cheeses, eggs, poultry, and fish)
Conditions Requiring Increase
No specific conditions requiring an increase
Specific Characteristics of Sulfur are:
1. Much information remains to be learned about the role of sulfur in human
physiology.
2. The greatest concentration is in hair and nails.
 8. Iron (Fe)

The Functions are:

1. Plays an essential role in the formation of hemoglobin.
2. Is found in myoglobin, the iron-protein molecule in muscles.
Food Sources are:
RDA Male (19–30 y): 8 mg/d RDA Female (19–30 y): 18 mg/d
1. liver, kidneys, lean meats, whole grains, parsley, enriched bread, cereals, legumes, almonds
2. dried fruit: prunes (and juice), raisins, apricots
3. approximately 2 to 10% of the iron in vegetables and grains can be absorbed, compared with
10 to 30% absorption of iron from animal protein
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
iron-deficiency anemia hemosiderosis: a condition where iron is deposited in
the liver and body tissues. The cell becomes distorted
and dies. The liver is damaged.
Conditions Requiring Increase of Iron are:
1. Girls and women who menstruate (about 30 mg per month lost)
2. Pregnancy (supplementation with iron and folacin needed)
3. Acute or chronic blood loss
4. Inadequate protein intake
Specific Characteristics of Iron are:
1. Approximately 3 ⁄4 of functioning iron in the body is in hemoglobin.
2. Hemoglobin is the principal part of the red blood cell and carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. It assists
in returning CO2 (carbon dioxide) to the lungs.
3. Iron is best absorbed in an acid medium. Absorption is enhanced by ascorbic acid.
4. Milk is a very poor source of iron, containing only a trace.
5. Iron is the most difficult nutrient to meet through diet for women.
6. The following nutrients are essential for the manufacture of red blood cells: a. iron, vitamin B6, and copper for
hemoglobin formation b. protein for globin formation c. vitamin C to aid the absorption of iron.
7. The populations at risk for iron deficiency anemia are: infants (6–12 months) adolescent girls menstruating,
pregnant women
 Microminerals
1. Iodine (I)

The Functions are:

1. The basic component of thyroxin, a hormone in the thyroid gland that regulates the basal
metabolic rate (BMR).
2. Contributes to normal growth and development of the body.

Food Sources of Iodine are:

RDA Male and Female (19–30 y): 150 µg/d
1. Iodized salt (major source)
2. seafood: saltwater fish
3. food additives: dough oxidizers, dairy disinfectants, coloring agents
4. foods containing seaweed
Severe Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. cretinism (stunted growth, dwarfism) hyperthyroidism (toxic goiter)
2. goiter (enlargement of the thyroid gland)
Conditions Requiring Increase of Iodine are:
1. Wherever soil is low in iodine
2. In areas where goiter is endemic
3. In pregnant women with deficient diets
Specific Characteristics of Iodine are:
1. Certain foods contain substances that block the absorption of iodine: cabbage, turnips,
rutabagas.
2. Iodine-containing food additives may cause an excess intake of iodine in some areas.
 2. Zinc (Zn)
The Functions are:
1. Contributes to the formation of enzymes needed in metabolism.
2. Affects normal sensitivity to taste and smell.
3. Aids protein synthesis.
4. Aids normal growth and sexual maturation.
5. Promotes wound healing.
6. May help in the treatment of acne.
Food Sources are:
RDA Male (19–30 y): 11 mg/d RDA Female (19–30 y): 8 mg/d
oysters, liver, meats, poultry, legumes, nuts
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. associated with extreme malnutrition toxicity associated with ingestion of acid
2. impairs wound healing foods stored in zinc lined containers
3. decreases taste and smell
4. dwarfism and impaired sexual
development in children
Conditions Requiring Increase of Zinc are:
1. Following surgery, especially when the diet has been inadequate before surgery
2. Those with alterations in taste and smell
3. Certain diseases of dark-skinned races, such as sickle cell anemia

Specific Characteristics of Zinc is:

1. The availability of zinc is greater from animal sources; vegetable sources contain phytates,
which bind it, causing its excretion.
 3. Fluoride (F)
Function of Flouride
Protects against dental caries.
Food Sources are:
AI Male (19–30 y): 4 mg/d AI Female (19–30 y): 3 mg/d
seafood fluoridated drinking water (1 PPM* added to water)
Deficiency severe Excess may lead to:
50 to 70% of cases of tooth decay from fluoride 1. fluorosis mottled stains on teeth
deficiency 2. dense bones
3. mental depression (adults)
Conditions Requiring Increase
Areas where no fluoride available and elderly
Specific Characteristics of Flouride
1. Fluoride is being used to assist in regenerating bone loss due to osteoporosis in selected
studies.
 4. Copper (Cu)
The Functions are:
1. Considered “twin” to iron; aids in the formation of hemoglobin and energy production.
2. Promotes absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract.
3. Aids bone formation.
4. Aids brain tissue formation.
5. Contributes to the myelin sheath of the nervous system.
Food Sources are:
RDA Male and Female (19–30 y): 900 µg/d
liver, kidney, shellfish, lobster, oysters, nuts, raisins, legumes, corn oil
Deficiency Excess may lead to:
Deficiency occurs in association with disease states such as: ingestion of large amounts is toxic to humans
1. PEM (protein-energy malnutrition)
2. kwashiorkor (extreme protein deficiency)
3. sprue (disease marked by diarrhea)
4. cystic fibrosis
5. kidney disease
6. iron-deficiency anemia
Conditions Requiring Increase
Disease states noted under deficiencies

Specific Characteristics of Copper are:

1. Copper is concentrated in the liver, brain, heart, and kidneys.
2. Absorption takes place in the small intestine.
3. Other minerals can interfere with copper absorption.
4. Zinc is an antagonist to copper because it reduces absorption.
 5. Cobalt (Co)

The Function of Cobalt

Acts as a component of vitamin B12
Food Sources are:
RDA: not established (organ meats, muscle meat, vitamin B12)
Deficiency Excess
No specific deficiency in humans; deficient
production of B12 noted in animals.
Conditions Requiring Increase
No specific conditions requiring an increase
Specific Characteristic of Cobalt
1. RDAs for cobalt not established, but 15 mcg/day is suggested.
 6. Manganese (Mn)

The Functions are:

1. Appears necessary for bone growth and reproduction.
2. Acts as an enzyme activator.
Food Sources are:
AI Male (19–30 y): 2.3 mg/d, AI Female (19–30 y): 1.8 mg/d (nuts, legumes, tea, coffee,
grains)
Deficiency Excess
No deficiencies noted in humans except protein-
energy malnutrition.
Conditions Requiring Increase of Manganese
Protein-energy malnutrition
Specific Characteristic of Manganese
1. Manganese has not been demonstrated to be an essential nutrient in humans
 7. Selenium (Se)

The Functions are:

1. Parts of an enzyme that functions as an antioxidant.
2. Vitamin E repairs damage caused by oxygen.
Food Sources
AI Male & Female (19–30 y): 55 µg/d
Main sources: meat, eggs, seafood
Other: vegetables are grown in selenium-rich soil
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. increased risk of cancer Selenosis
2. causes one type of heart disease
Conditions Requiring Increase of Selenium are:
1. Pregnancy and lactation
2. Children living in countries where no selenium exists in soil or water, e.g., parts of China
Specific Characteristics of Selenium are:
1. Found in all body cells as part of an enzyme system.
2. Adequate RDA intakes believed to have a role in cancer prevention.
3. Excess selenium is toxic.
4. The line between health and overdose is very thin.
5. The daily dose should not exceed 70 µg.
 8. Molybdenum

The Functions are:

1. A catalyst in metabolic reactions
2. Cofactor in certain oxidative enzymes
Food Sources are:
AI Male and Female (19–30y): 45 µg/d
UL Male and Female (19–30y): 2000 µg/d
1. Animal: organ meats (liver, kidney)
2. Milk
3. Legumes
4. Cereal grains
Deficiency may result to: Excess may lead to:
1. Defects in infants, including mental symptoms resembling gout
retardation
2. irritability
3. possible coma
4. dislocated lenses
Conditions Requiring Increase of Molybdenum are:
1. Malnutrition
2. Patients on long-term TPN
Specific Characteristics of Molybdenum are:
1. Amount in body exceeding small
2. Precise occurrence and clear metabolic role under continuing investigation
3. Is rapidly excreted in urine
4. Genetic defect (inborn error of metabolism) creates deficiency with severe effects
 9. Trace Minerals with Newly Defined Functions

Functions
Cofactor in insulin metabolism:
1. Improves uptake of glucose
2. Lower LDL cholesterol increases HDL cholesterol

Food Sources are:

AI Male (19–30y): 35 µg/d AI Female (19–30y): 25 µg/d
1. Liver Cheese
2. Brewer’s yeast
3. Whole grains
4. Leafy vegetables
Deficiency may result to: Excess
1. Impaired glucose tolerance No symptoms of excess
2. Impaired function of CNS (TPN
Conditions Requiring Increase of Trace Minerals are:
1. Malnutrition
2. Patients on long-term TPN
Specific Characteristics of Trace Minerals are:
1. Total body content small (less than 6 mg)
2. An essential component of the complex glucose tolerance factor (GTF)
3. Absorption: Small amounts absorbed in the intestine
4. Excretion: Mainly in the urine
Implications for Health Personnel
Of all the essential minerals, iron probably poses the most
clinical problems. All healthcare professionals should pay
special attention to the following information and guidelines:
1. Because iron is a nutrient likely to be deficient in the human
body, the following tips will be helpful when instructing a
client:
○ Cooking foods in larger pieces and smaller amounts of
water reduces the amount of iron lost in preparation.
○ The use of meat drippings and fruit pulp conserves iron.
○ A diet high in bulk reduces iron absorption; clients at risk
of iron deficiency should use only moderate fiber
content.
○ High intake of antacids makes the gastric juices
alkaline and reduces iron absorption.
○ An adequate calcium intake increases iron
absorption because the calcium will bind with the
phosphates, phytates, oxalates, and cellulose and
leave the iron-free for absorption.
○ Spinach is not a good source of iron. It contains a
large number of oxalates that hinder iron
absorption.
○ Since ascorbic acid promotes iron absorption,
eating foods containing iron and vitamin C together
produces the best results.
2. Iron-poor foods are pale in color (black pigment). Iron salts
are colored and impart their color to the foods they are in.
Examples are milk (iron-poor) and liver (iron-rich).
3. Because the body cannot excrete excess iron, and it can,
therefore, pose health hazards if consumed in large
amounts:
○ Keep the iron medication out of the reach of children
(iron poisoning among children is the fourth most
common type of poisoning).
○ Read labels on over-the-counter preparations (some are
high in iron and, when mixed with other iron compounds,
may create excess).
4. Iron medications interfere with some antibiotic absorption.
Patients taking both preparations need to take them at
different times.
The health team should also pay
attention to the following
information to ensure clients are
at1.their optimal
Both the quality mineral
and quantity status.
of food intake should be
monitored.
2. The use of diuretics may lead to alteration in the fluid and
electrolyte balance in the body, especially high losses of
sodium (hyponatremia) and potassium (hypokalemia).
3. Hypokalemia may become severe in the following disorders:
vomiting, diarrhea, wound drainage, diabetic acidosis, and in
those taking digitalis for heart conditions.
4. Persons with poor food intake may suffer from multiple
mineral deficiencies.
5. Alcoholics, psychiatric patients, drug abusers, the aged, the
poverty-stricken, and those with malabsorptive disorders are
most likely to suffer mineral deficiencies.
6. Certain foods and conditions of the intestinal tract will
greatly influence the absorption of minerals. Each mineral
should merit separate consideration since not all react to
the same conditions and foods.
7. Calcium deficiency results from insufficient intake,
malabsorption, or lack of vitamin D. Acute hypocalcemia
causes tetany and may cause death. Hypocalcemia from
inadequate intake over long periods results in osteoporosis,
which occurs in three out of five women over the age of 60,
and is a severe disorder.
8. Recognize the factors that promote or inhibit iron
absorption. Be able to plan an iron-rich diet that
excludes least-liked foods high in iron.
9. Recognize major symptoms that may indicate
deficiencies of minerals and follow up with treatment.
10.Be able to list the best food sources of the mineral(s)
that the client is deficient in.
11.Find resources for those who have inadequate mineral
intake due to lack of money for food or ignorance of
nutrition needs.
WATER !
■ Nutrient most vital to life.

■ Makes up approximately 60% of adult body weight

and 80% of infant weight.

■ Provides form and structure to body tissues.

■ Acts as a solvent; necessary for most chemical processes.

■ Transports nutrients and other substances.

■ Lubricates and protects moving parts of the body.

■ Lubricates food and aids in digestion.

■ Regulates body temperature

SOURCES OF WATER FOR THE BODY

● Liquids consumed, including water, coffee, juice,

tea, milk and soft drinks.

● Foods consumed, especially vegetables and fruits.

● Metabolism, which produces water when oxidization

occurs.
WATER DIGESTION/ ABSORPTION/ STORAGE

● Water is absorbed, not digested.

● It is not stored and is excreted daily.

● Sensible loss–aware of loss of water.

● Insensible loss–not aware of loss of water.

● Urine, feces, perspiration, and respiration are the

four ways the body loses water.
SIGNS OF
● Dehydration:
○ Deficiency of water, can cause death.
○ Occurs from profuse sweating, vomiting,
diarrhea, hemorrhage, wound drainage,
fever, and edema.

● Positive water balance when more water taken in

than used or excreted.
END OF
LESSON!