Haramaya University

College of Business & Economics

Department of Management

Business Research Methods

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 Chapter 1
Research Methods: An
Introduction

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 1. Definition of Research

• Try the Following:

• What is science?
• What is Scientific method?
• What is research?
• What is scientific research?
• What is business research?

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 What is Science?
Several Definitions:
 “The use of evidence to construct
testable explanations and predictions of
natural phenomena, as well as the
knowledge generated through this
process.”
 “Science is not an encyclopedic body of
knowledge about the universe. Instead, it
represents a process for proposing and
refining theoretical explanations about the
world that are subject to further testing and
refinement.
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 Cont’d
• Science is a methodical approach to
studying the natural world.
• Science asks basic questions, such as
how does the world work, How did the
world come to be, What was the world
like in the past, what is it like now, &
what will it be like in the future?
• These questions are answered using
observation, testing, & interpretation
through logic.
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 What is Scientific Method?
• The distinctive characteristic of science is
its methodology.
• Science is not just a body of knowledge,
but knowledge collected by the
application of the scientific methodology.
• This methodology comprises a system of
rules & procedures on which research is
based.
• The “scientific method” attempts to
minimize the influence of the researchers'
bias on the outcome of an experiment.
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 Cont’d
• Scientific method is the search of
truth as determined by logical
considerations.
• The ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts.
• Scientific method attempts to achieve
“this ideal by experimentation,
observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying
proportions.
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 What is Research?
• Research is a logical and
systematic search for new and
useful information on a particular
topic.
• It is a scientific method of finding
solutions for different problems
through objective and systematic
analysis.
• It is a search for knowledge, that
is, a discovery of hidden truths.
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 What is Scientific Research?
• Scientific research may be defined as a
systematic, controlled, empirical &
critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the recognized
relations among observed phenomena.
• It focuses on solving problems and
pursues a step by step logical,
organized and rigorous method to
identify the problems, gather data,
analyze them and draw valid
conclusions there from.
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 Cont’d
• Goal of scientific inquiry is
inference using observations from
the world to learn about other
unobserved facts

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 What is Business Research?
• Business research is defined as the
systematic and objective process of
generating information for aid in making
business decisions.
• Business research refers to systematic
collection and analysis of data with the
purpose of finding answers to problems
facing management.
• It provides the needed information that
guides managers to make informed
decisions to successfully deal with problems.
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 2. Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover
answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out
the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered yet.
• Though each research study has its
own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:

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 Cont’d
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon
or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the
characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are
known as descriptive research
studies);
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 Cont’d
1. To determine the frequency with
which something occurs or with
which it is associated with
something else (studies with this
object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
2. To test a hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables
(such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research
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studies). 14
 3. Types of Research
The basic types of research
include:
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical
2. Applied Vs Fundamental
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
4. Conceptual Vs Empirical

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 Cont’d
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical
Research
 Descriptive research includes
surveys and fact-finding questions of
different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already
available & analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
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 Cont’d
2. Applied Vs Fundamental Research
• Research can either be applied (or
action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research.
• Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalizations
and with the formulation of a theory.
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 Cont’d
• Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
• Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
• Similarly, research studies, concerning
human behaviour carried on with a view to
make generalizations about human
behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research.
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 Cont’d
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
Research

• Quantitative research is based on the

measurement of quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research, on the other hand,
is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind.
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 Cont’d
4. Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
• Conceptual research is that related to
some abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
• On the other hand, empirical research
relies on experience or observation
alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
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 Some Other Types of
Research
• All other types of research are
variations of one or more of the
above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research,
or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in
which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor.

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 Cont’d (Other Types)

• Cross-sectional Research or Time

Series Research
• Field-setting Research or Laboratory
Research or Simulation Research
• Exploratory Research
• Historical Research, etc

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 4. Why Peoples Do
• Research Research?
methods provide you
with the knowledge and skills you
need to solve different problems
and acquire a new findings that
you aimed at.
• The major reasons why people
go for research are:
• Desire to earn a research degree
along with its consequential
benefits;
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 Cont’d
• To get prestige and recognition;
• To solve the unsolved and
challenging problems;
• To gain intellectual joy from doing
creative work;
• To serve the society by solving
social problems.

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 5. The Systematic Process
of Research
 The central aim of research is to know
‘something more’ about ‘something’,
or to discover answers to meaningful
questions through the application of
the following systematical procedures
or processes:
1. Identification and formulation of
research problem
2. Review of literature
3. Formulation of hypothesis
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 Cont’d
1. Research design
2. Sampling design
3. Measurement and scaling technique
4. Preliminary survey
5. Data collection
6. Processing and analysis of data
7. Hypothesis testing
8. Interpretation and generalization
9. Research report writing, presentation
& dissemination of research result
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 6. The Characteristics of a
Good Research
• One expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria:
• The purpose of the research should
be clearly defined & common
concepts should be used.
• The research procedure used should
be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat
the research for further
advancement.
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 Cont’d

• The procedural design of the

research should be carefully planned
to yield results that are as objective
as possible.
• The researcher should report with
complete frankness, identify flaws in
procedural design & estimate their
effects upon the findings.

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 Cont’d
• The analysis of data should be
sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of
analysis used should be
appropriate (Validity & Reliability of
the research).
• Conclusions should be confined to
those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for
which the data provide an
adequate basis.
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 Cont’d
• Greater confidence in research is
warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good standing
in research and is a person of
integrity.

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 7. Variable

• Variable is or an attribute that can

assume different values.
• Based on the values that variables
assume, variables can be classified
as:
• Qualitative variables
• Quantitative variables

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 Cont’d
• Qualitative Variables:
• Do not assume numeric values.
Example: Gender, Religion, Color
of automobile, etc.
• Quantitative variables:
• Assume numeric values.
• These variables are numeric in
nature. Example: Height, Family
size, Weight, etc.
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 Cont’d
• Quantitative variable can be
further classified as:

• Discrete Variable
• Continuous Variable

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 Cont’d
• Discrete Variable:
• Takes whole number values and
consists of distinct recognizable
individual elements that can be
counted.
• It is a variable that assumes a finite or
countable number of possible values.
• These values are obtained by counting
(0, 1, 2, …).
• Example: Family size, Number of
children in a family, Number of
employees in an orgn, etc
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 Cont’d
• Continuous Variable:
• Takes any value including decimals.
• Such a variable can theoretically
assume an infinite number of possible
values.
• These values are obtained by
measuring.

• Example: Height, Weight, Time &

Temperature, etc.
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 8. Scales of Measurement

There about four common

scales of measurement:

1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale

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 Cont’d
• Nominal Scales:
• These are those qualitative variables
which show category of individuals.
• They reflect classification in to categories
(name of groups) where there is no
particular order or qualitative difference to
the labels.
• The only mathematical operation
permissible on these variables is counting.
• Ex: Gender, Religion, ID No, Ethnicity,
Color, etc.
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 Cont’d
• Ordinal Scales:
• These are also qualitative variables
whose values can be ordered and
ranked.
• Ranking and counting are the only
mathematical operations to be applied
on the values of the variables.
• But there is no precise difference
between the values (categories) of the
variable.
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 Cont’d
Examples (Ordinal Scales):
• Academic qualifications (BSc, MSc,
PhD),
• Grade Scores (A, B, C, D, F),
• Strength (very weak, week, strong,
very strong),
• Health status (very sick, sick,
cured),
• Economic status (lower class,
middle class, higher class group).
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 Cont’d
• Interval Scales:
• These are those quantitative
variables when there is a exact &
equal difference between each
objects.
• There is no true zero.
• Zero indicates low than empty.
• All mathematical operations other
than division can be applied.
Ex: Temperature
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 Cont’d
• Ratio Scales:
• These are those quantitative variables &
when the values of the variables are zero
it shows absence of the characteristics.
• Zero indicates absence of the
characteristics.
• All mathematical operations are allowed
to be operated on the values of the
variables.
Ex: Height, Weight, Income, Amount of
yield, Expenditure, Consumption, etc.
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 Types of Variables & Scales of
Measurement
• Nominal Scales
Qualitative
• Ordinal Scales
Variables

• Interval Scales Quantitative

• Ratio Scales Variables

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 9. Code of Ethics in
Research
• Research workers have a duty to
ensure that their work enhances
the good names of their
institutions and the profession to
which they belong.

• In general terms, the major ethical

areas that should be considered in
conducting research are the
following:
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 Cont’d

1. Professional Standards & Ethical

Conducts
2. The Researcher- respondent
Relationship
3. The Researcher- researcher
Relationship

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 Cont’d
1. Professional Standards & Ethical Conducts

• Maintain objectivity in the conduct of

inquiry
• Uphold professional integrity
• Demonstrate responsibility, competence
and propriety
• Make use of relevant research
methodology
• Choose appropriate interpretation of the
data
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 Cont’d

• Report the data accurately

• Avoid fabrication of data
• Avoid falsification of data
• Plagiarism

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 Cont’d
2. The Researcher - Respondent
Relationship

• Avoiding Harm to Respondents

• Fraud

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 Cont’d
3. The Researcher - Researcher
Relationship

• Misleading acknowledgment of
authorship
• Misuse of authority or role
• Plagiarism

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 Chapter 2
Defining Research Problem

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 1. What is a Research
Problem?
• The pursuit of research begins with
a problem.
• A research problem may be viewed
as a general statement of why the
research is to be undertaken.
• The condition of the research
problem is suggested by our lack
of knowledge or understanding of
a phenomenon under
investigation.
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 Cont’d
• A research problem thus starts
from insufficiency of the
established body of knowledge (&
possibly contradicting results from
different researchers).
• A good research problem is one
that is worthy spending time
investigating (and this includes
issues on “solvability” of the
problem), and one whose report is
worth spending time reading.
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 Cont’d
• A well-defined research problem
leads naturally to the statement of
the research objectives, research
hypotheses, the key variables & a
selection of methodology for
measuring the variables.

• A poorly defined research problem

leads to confusion.

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 Cont’d
• Identification and formulation of
research problem is not an easy
task.

• In most scientific works, the

difficulty lies in framing problems
rather than in finding their
solutions.

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 2. Selection of a Research
Problem
• Identification (selection) and
formulation needs a careful
accomplishment so that it will be
considered as ‘half journey’ to the
aimed result.
• For an accomplishment of successful
problem selection, there are criteria
through which a certain research
problem must pass to be selected as
a sound problem.
05/23/2023 54
 Cont’d

These criteria can be seen in

two directions as follows:
Internal External
Researcher’s Importance &
interest urgency
Researcher’s Feasibility
competence
Researcher’s own Cooperation of
resources organizations &
individuals
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 3. Techniques in Defining a
Research Problem
 Whenever defining a research problem,
it would be better to follow the
following major procedural techniques:
1. Stating problem in a general way
2. Understating the nature of the
problem
3. Surveying available literatures
4. Developing ideas (special interest)
5. Rephrasing the problem
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 Research process and Problem formulation

The research process consists of a series of

actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
The following order concerning the various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding
the research process:

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 Cont’d……..
(i) Identifying and formulating the research problem i.e., problem discovery
(ii) Extensive literature survey
(iii)Developing the working hypothesis
(iv)Preparing the research design i.e., selection of basic research method
(v) Determining the sample design i.e., deciding on sampling technique
(vi)Collecting data
(vii)Analysis of the data
Hypothesis testing
(viii)
(ix)Generalization and interpretations
(x) Preparing the report and presentation of the results (formal write up of conclusions
reached)
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 Cont’d……………

1. Identification of a Research topic/problem:

To do a research, a topic or a research problem
must be identified. So, the first step in the
research process is the choice of suitable problem
for investigation. Research takes place when
there is a problematic situation and a need to
solve the problem. The identification of a research
problem is a difficult phase of the entire research
process.
05/23/2023 59
 Cont’d……….

2. Literature Review:
It is also called document review or literature survey. It
has to be directly related to the problem to be investigated.
The materials to be reviewed may include academic
journals, conference proceedings, and government report,
and policy report, publications of international
organizations, books, and newsletters. The best place for
the survey is library. In general, literature survey is used to
familiarize oneself with the issue and establish credibility
and to learn from other and stimulate new idea.

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 Cont’d………….
Hypothesis is a tentative intelligent guess
postulating from the purpose of directing the
researcher towards the solution of problem. Or it
is a statement which predicts the relationship
between two or more variables.
It is necessary link between theory and
investigation, usually stated after an extensive
survey of the literature.

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 Cont’d………….

Determining research design

The sources of information for a study and the
research design go hand in hand. They both
depend upon how much is known about the
problem. If little is known about the phenomenon
to be investigated, exploratory research is feasible.
If the problem is precisely and unambiguously
formulated, descriptive or causal research is
needed.
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 Cont’d…………..
Design sample and collect data
Most of the empirical research depends on primary data,
which are collected specifically for the study. Data collection
method can be administered through observation,
questionnaire, scheduling or indirect interviewing. In
designing the sample, the researcher must specify: (1) the
sampling frame (2) the sample selection process (3) the size
of the sample. The sampling frame is the list of population
elements from which the sample will be drawn. The sample
selection process requires that the form of the sample be
specified.
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 Cont’d………

Analyze and interpret the data

The collected data are useless unless findings are
analyzed and the results interpreted in the light
of the problem at hand. Data analysis involves
several steps. First, the data collection forms
must be scanned to be sure that they are
complete and consistent. This process is called
editing.
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 Cont’d……….

Prepare the research report

The research report summarizes the research
results and conclusions. It is imperative that the
research report be clear and accurate.

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 Cont’d…………

PROBLEM FORMULATION
What is a research problem?
It refers to some difficulty, which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical
or a practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the problem.
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 Cont’d………

•Generally, a research problem exists when there is /are.

 An individual or group, which has some difficulty or
problem
 Some objectives to be attained
 Alternative measures
 Unanswered questions
 Some environment to which the difficulty pertains
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 Cont’d……………..
Some potential source of research topic which may be
helpful to a researcher for selecting a research
problem may be suggested.
•Own professional experience is the most important
source. In addition contacts and discussions with
research oriented people, attending conferences,
seminars and listening to the learned speakers

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 Cont’d………..

•Inferences from theory and professional

literature: Research reports, bibliographies of
books and articles, periodicals, research abstracts
and research guides suggest areas that need
research. In general a preliminary literature
search is important in order to find out:
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 Cont’d………..
 What other researchers have to say about the topic
 Ensure that no one else has already exhausted the
questions that you aim to examine
• See how the topic has been discussed within
the computing theoretical framework.
 Make sure there is enough material available for
you to work with productively.

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 Cont’d………
• Technological and social change: New
developments bring forth new development
challenges for research. New innovations and
changes need to be carefully evaluated through the
research process.
The Research Question:
• Usually the topics chosen are broad at first. It lacks
focus for conducting research. Therefore it should
be narrowed properly and focused into specific
question
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 Cont’d……….
•So, that the next step is to narrow down. Techniques that help us
to narrow a research topic into research question:
a) Examining of the past and present literature
b) Discussing the idea with other people
c) Applying the topic to specific context (specific time period,
society or geographical unit or subgroups or categories etc)
• Defining the aim of the outcome (whether the research is
exploratory research) ex: performance of agricultural
industries performance of Awash Agro industry.
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 Cont’d………

•Definition and the statement of the problem:

The next step is to clearly define the problem in
unambiguous manner, i.e., explaining the
problem in a clear and unambiguous term. A
problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.
If the problem is well defined it helps the
researcher to:

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 Cont’d………..
 Discriminate relevant data from irrelevant ones
 To lay boundaries within which to study
• To be on the right track
Objectives of the study:
•The next step after the statement of the problem is setting up
the objective; it is the most important task in conducting
research. It is here that the research can exactly determine
what data is to be collected. Thus:
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 Cont’d…………
 Set an overall objective of the research
 Split the overall objectives in to smaller segments
known as sub-objectives
 State the sub-objectives clearly and
precisely/concisely in turn think of the overall
objectives through those segments and conquer than
in turn rather a frontal attack, upon the entire problem.
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 Cont’d…………

Research Hypothesis:
Definition: Hypothesis is a tentative intelligent
guess postulating from the purpose of directing
the researcher towards the solution of problem.
Or it is a statement which predicts the
relationship between two or more variables.

05/23/2023 76
 Cont’d…………….
•Importance of research Hypothesis:
1) It is an indicator of the type of data needed
2) It gives direction to the research objectives
3) It gives direction to data gathering techniques (procedures)
4) It facilitates the extension of knowledge because it links
theory and investigation.
5) It guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and
keeps him on the right track.
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 Cont’d………….
Note that a hypothesis can appear in your report on either:
(i) Deductive form: makes positive statement about the outcome
of the study. It can come in the form of directional or non-
directional way.
 Directional: stipulates the direction of the expected result.
Ex: The performance of young employees is significantly
higher than those who are experienced and old.

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 Cont’d………..
 young employees is significantly higher than those
who are experienced and old.
 Non- directional: Does not specify the direction of
expected difference or relationship. Ex: There is a
difference in performance of employees who are young
and those who are old and experienced.
(ii) Null Form: Makes a statement that states no relationship.

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 Cont’d……….

• Ex: There is no significant difference in the

performance of employees between those who
are young and old
(iii)Question form: Put the hypothesis in question
form. Ex: Does the change in the experience of the
employees affect the performance of employees?

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 Cont’d…………..
(iv)Alternative hypothesis: This signifies a statement written
opposite to the null form, i.e., when the final decision is made
at a given significance level if the null hypothesis is to rejected
alternative hypothesis gets accepted, the alternative hypothesis
too on equal footing along with the null hypothesis provides
direction to the research.
• Ex: There is significant difference in the performance of
employees between those who are young and old
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 Cont’d……………

Significance of the study:

•It is to mean the rationale to conduct the
research. The significance or rationale to take a
research may be stated as:

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 Cont’d…………
1) There is no detail local investigation before about the problem
2) The study may be conducted on the assumption that there is a
strong need for local investigation
3) To alert decision makers
4) To fill the gap in the existing studies
5) To resolve some inconsistency in previous research
6) The finding may lead to new problem for further study
7) To provide basic data about the problem
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 Cont’d…………….
Delimitation of the study:
It is also known as the scope of the study. In many research
projects, researchers cannot treat all aspect of the research
problem. The researcher, therefore, should carefully state the
boundary of the problem to be investigated. This will be
undertaken by specifying areas of all variables which will be
considered in the study or by eliminating all aspects and
factors which will not be considered in the study.
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 Cont’d………….
Limitation of the study:
•It refers to problems encountered during the
research process and their effects on the quality
of the research output.

05/23/2023 85
 Cont’d………………..
Literature Review
•In a literature search, the major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas
and tentative explanations of the phenomenon.
•In most cases, the exploration phase will begin with a literature search-
a review of books as well as articles in journals or professional literature
that relate to the problem. A literature search requires the use of library’s
online catalog and one or more bibliographic databases or indexes. Other
reference materials will be incorporated in search strategy.

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 Cont’d………..
1. Define the management problem
2. Consult encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks and textbooks to
identify key terms, people, or events relevant to management
question.
3. Apply key terms, people, or events in searching indexes,
bibliographies, and the web to identify specific secondary sources.
4. Locate and review specific secondary sources for relevance.
5. Evaluate the value of each source and its content.

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 Cont’d……………..

Levels of information
In exploring the problem or topic, different
types of information sources are to be
considered. Information sources are generally
categorized into two levels;

05/23/2023 88
 Cont’d………..

1. Primary sources
2. Secondary sources
1. Primary sources
Primary sources are original works of research or
raw data without interpretation that represent an
official opinion or position. Included among the
primary sources are memos, letters, complete
interviews or speeches.
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 Cont’d…………..
2. Secondary sources
Secondary sources are interpretations of primary data.
Encyclopedias, textbooks, handbooks, magazine and
newspaper articles, and most newscasts are considered
secondary information sources. All reference materials fall into
this category. E.g. sales analysis summaries and investor
annual reports are examples of secondary sources as they are
compiled from a variety of primary sources.
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 Cont’d…………..

Importance of literature review:

1)Helps us to know whether the problem has
been studied or not, is the problem new
2)Shows the path of prior research and how
current project is linked its relationship to your
study is linked to it.
05/23/2023 91
 Cont’d…………………….

3) To get and summarize that is known in the

area (Research gap)
Helps us to know the data collection rule, helps
us to select appropriate method of data
collection and helps us to know whether it is up
to date.
05/23/2023 92
 Cont’d……………….

4) To know about the recommendations of the

previous research for further study which they
have listed in the studies.

05/23/2023 93
 Chapter 3
Developing Research
Proposal

05/23/2023 94
 What is Research
• The research Proposal?
proposal is a work plan and
prospectus outline that a researcher offers to
produce a research result to a potential buyer or
sponsor.
• The purpose of research proposal is to help the
researcher to focus and define his/her research
plans.

05/23/2023 95
 Cont’d
• These plans in the proposal are not binding,
in that they may be changed substantially
as you progress in the research.
• However, they are an indication to the
researchers’ faculty of direction and
discipline as a research is in its final position
to be started.
• Generally speaking, research proposal is
essentially a road map, showing clearly the
location from which a journey begins, the
destination to be reached, and the method
of getting there.
05/23/2023 96
 2. Elements of Research
The major Proposal
sections/components of
research proposal are:
1. Cover Page
2. Abstract/Executive Summary
3. Glossary of Terms (if any)
4. Table of Contents
5. List of Figures
6. Introduction
7. Background
8. Statement of the Problem
05/23/2023 97
 Cont’d
• Objectives of the Study
• Significance of the Study
• Scope of the Study
1. Literature Review
2. Research Methodology
3. Expected Results
4. Work Plan (Cost & Time
Plan)

05/23/2023 98
 Cont’d
1. Appendices
2. References

05/23/2023 99
 3. What Makes a Good
Research Proposal?
• Relevance, either to the work of the
funding body or to the student’s
course.
• The research is unique, or offers new
insight or development.
• The title, aims and objectives are all
clear and concise.
• Comprehensive and methodical
background research and literature
review has been undertaken.
05/23/2023 100
 Cont’d
• There is a good match between the
issues to be addressed and the
approach being adopted.
• The researcher demonstrates relevant
background knowledge &/or
experience.
• Time table, resources and budget
have all been worked out thoroughly,
with most eventualities covered.
• Useful policy and practice
implications.
05/23/2023 101
 4. Major Reasons Why
• AimsResearch Proposal
and objectives are unclearFail
or vague.
• There is a mismatch between the
approach being adopted and the issue to
be addressed.
• The overall plan is too ambitious and
difficult to be achieved in the timescale.
• The research does not seem to have
conducted enough in-depth background
research.
• The very problem is of insufficient
importance.
05/23/2023 102
 Cont’d
• Information about the data
collection method is insufficiently
detailed.
• Information about the data
analysis method is insufficiently
detailed.
• Timescale is inappropriate or
unrealistic.
• Resources and budget have not
been carefully thought out.
05/23/2023 103
 Chapter 4
Research Design

05/23/2023 104
 1. Definition of Research
Designproblem that
• The formidable
follows the task of defining the
research problem is the
preparation of the design of the
research project, popularly known
as the “research design”.
• Decisions regarding what, where,
when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design.
05/23/2023 105
 Cont’d
• More explicitly, the design
decisions happen to be in respect
of:

• What is the study about?

• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• Where can the required data be
found?
05/23/2023 106
 Cont’d

• What periods of time will the study

include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection
will be used?
• How will the data be analyzed?
• In what style will the report be
prepared?
05/23/2023 107
 Cont’d
• In brief, research design must, at
least, contain a clear statement of
the research problem, procedures
& techniques to be used for
gathering information, the
population to be studied and
methods to be used in processing
& analyzing data.

05/23/2023 108
 2. Need for Research Design

• Research design is needed

because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time
& money.

05/23/2023 109
 Cont’d
• Just as for better, economical and
attractive construction of a house,
we need a blueprint (or what is
commonly called the map of the
house) well thought out and
prepared by an expert architect,
similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our
research project.
05/23/2023 110
 Cont’d
• Research design stands for advance
planning of the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant
data and the techniques to be used
in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time & money.
• So, preparation of the research
design should be done with great
care as any error in it may upset the
entire project.
05/23/2023 111
 3. Features of a Good Design
• A good design is often characterized
by adjectives like flexible, appropriate,
efficient, economical & so on.
• Generally, the design which minimizes
bias and maximizes the reliability of
the data collected and analyzed is
considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest
experimental error is supposed to be
the best design in many investigations.
05/23/2023 112
 Cont’d
• Similarly, a design which yields
maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and
efficient design in respect of many
research problems.
• Thus, the question of good design is
related to the purpose or objective of
the research problem and also with the
nature of the problem to be studied.
05/23/2023 113
 Cont’d
• A design may be quite suitable in
one case, but may be found
wanting in one respect or the other
in the context of some other
research problem.

• One single design cannot serve the

purpose of all types of research
problems.
05/23/2023 114
 Cont’d
• A research design appropriate for a
particular research problem, usually
involves the consideration of the following
factors:
 The means of obtaining information;
 The availability and skills of the researcher
& his staff, if any;
 The objective of the problem to be studied;
 The nature of the problem to be studied &
 The availability of time and money for the
research work.
05/23/2023 115
 4. Important Concepts
Relating to Research Design

• Dependent and independent

variables
• Inessential variable
• Control
• Confounded relationship
• Research hypothesis

05/23/2023 116
 Cont’d
• Experimental and non-
experimental hypothesis-testing
research
• Experimental and control groups
• Treatments
• Experiment
• Experimental unit(s)

05/23/2023 117
 5. Different Research Designs
• Different research designs can be
conveniently categorized as
follows:

1. Research design in case of exploratory

research studies
2. Research design in case of descriptive
& diagnostic research studies
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies
05/23/2023 118
 Cont’d
1. Research Design in Case of
Exploratory Research Studies
 Exploration is particularly useful when
researchers lack a clear idea of the
problems they will meet during the study.
Researchers develop concepts more clearly,
establish priorities, develop operational
definitions, and improve the final research
design.

05/23/2023 119
 Cont’d………………….
 The main purpose of such studies is
that of formulating a problem for
more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses
from an operational point of view.
 The major emphasis in such studies
is on the discovery of ideas and
insights

05/23/2023 120
 Cont’d……………..
Exploration study is required when the area of
investigation is new or vague for the researcher.
Important variables may not be known or thoroughly
defined.
The objectives of exploration may be accomplished
with different techniques. Both quantitative and
qualitative techniques are applicable. Exploration relies
heavily on qualitative techniques. When we consider
the scope of qualitative research, several approaches
are adaptable for exploratory investigations.
05/23/2023 121
 Cont’d………….

 In-depth interviewing
 Participant observation
 Projective techniques and psychological
testing
 Case studies

05/23/2023 122
 Cont’d……….

•Four exploratory techniques emerge with wide

applicability for the management researcher:
1.Secondary data analysis (Literature search)
2.Experience surveys
3.Focus groups
4.Two-stage designs
05/23/2023 123
 Cont’d…………….

1. Secondary data analysis

The first step in an exploratory study is a search of
secondary literature. Studies made by others for
their own purposes represent secondary data.
Within secondary data exploration, a researcher
should start first with an organization’s own data
archives. Reports of prior research studies often
reveal an extensive amount of historical data or
decision-making patterns
05/23/2023 124
 Cont’d…………….

2. Experience surveys
When interview persons in an experience survey,
we should seek ideas about important issues or
aspects of the subject and discover what is
important across the subject’s range of
knowledge.
05/23/2023 125
 Cont’d…………….

3. Focus groups
A focus group is a panel of 6-10 people, led by a
trained moderator. The facilitator or moderator
uses group dynamics principles to focus or guide
the group in an exchange of ideas, feelings, and
experiences on a specific topic.

05/23/2023 126
 Cont’d……………..

4. Two-stage designs
A useful way to design a research study is as a
two-stage design. With this approach, exploration
becomes a separate first stage with limited
objectives. (1) Clearly defining the research
question and (2) developing the research question.
05/23/2023 127
 Cont’d
• As such the research design
appropriate for such studies must
be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering
different aspects of a problem
under study.
• Non-probability sampling design
(purposive or judgment sampling)
should be used for this research
type.
05/23/2023 128
 Cont’d
2. Research Design in Case of
Descriptive & Diagnostic Research
Studies

 Descriptive research studies are those

studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with
something else.
05/23/2023 129
 Cont’d
• The design in such studies must be
rigid and not flexible and must
focus attention on the following:
Formulating the objective of the
study (what the study is about and
why is it being made?)
Designing the methods of data
collection (what techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?)

05/23/2023 130
 Cont’d

Selecting the sample (how much

material will be needed?)
Collecting the data (where can the
required data be found and with
what time period should the data
be collected?)
Processing and analyzing the data.
Reporting the findings.

05/23/2023 131
 Cont’d
• Thus, the research design in case of
descriptive/diagnostic studies is a
survey design throwing light on all
points narrated above and must be
prepared keeping in view the
objective(s) of the study and the
resources available.
• In this case, the design must ensure
the minimization of bias &
maximization of reliability of the
evidence collected.
05/23/2023 132
 Cont’d
• Unlike exploratory research, rigid
design (design that must make
enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximize
reliability) should be used for these
research types (descriptive &
diagnostic research).

• In this case, probability sampling

design (random sampling) is
appropriate to use.
05/23/2023 133
 Cont’d
1. Research Design in Case of
Hypothesis-testing Research
Studies

 Hypothesis-testing research
studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships
between variables.
05/23/2023 134
 Cont’d
• Such studies require procedures
that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality.
• Usually experiments meet this
requirement.
• Hence, when we talk of research
design in such studies, we often
mean the experimental design.

05/23/2023 135
 Cont’d………………….
• Descriptive studies
A good descriptive study presupposes much prior knowledge
about the phenomenon studied.
Descriptive studies require a clear specification of the who,
what, when, where, why and how of the research. Descriptive
studies are typically structured with clearly stated hypothesis
or investigative questions. They serve a variety of research
objectives:
05/23/2023 136
 Cont’d…………….

1. Descriptions of phenomena or characteristics

associated with a subject population (who, what,
when, where and how of a topic).
2. Estimates of the proportions of the population
that have these characteristics.
3. Discovery of associations among different
variables and to make specific predictions
05/23/2023 137
 Cont’d…………….
The various types of descriptive research are;
Cross sectional studies (sample survey)
It typically involves a sample of elements from
the population of interest. Various
characteristics of the elements or sample
members are measured once.

05/23/2023 138
 Cont’d……………
Longitudinal studies (time series analysis)
are repeated over an extended period. It can
track changes over time. In longitudinal studies
of the panel variety, the researcher may study the
same people over time. In marketing panels are
set up to report consumption data on a variety of
products, which provide relative market share,
consumer response to new products, and new
promotional methods.
05/23/2023 139
 Cont’d…………..
Causal studies
•Causal studies are concerned with how one variable affects
changes in another variable. It focuses in understanding,
explaining, predicting and controlling relationship between
variables. There are three possible relationships that can
occur between two variables. There are three possible
relationships that can occur between two variables;

05/23/2023 140
 Cont’d…………..

1. A symmetrical relationship is one in which two

variables fluctuate together but we assume the
changes in neither variable are due to changes in
the other. Symmetrical conditions are most often
found when two variables are alternate indicators
of another cause or independent variable.

05/23/2023 141
 Cont’d………

3. asymmetrical relationships we postulate that

changes in one variable (the independent
variable, IV) are responsible for changes in
another variable (the dependent variable, DV).
Most research analysts look for asymmetrical
relationships.
05/23/2023 142
 Cont’d……….

1. A reciprocal relationship exists when two variables

mutually influence or reinforce each other. This
could occur if the reading of an advertisement leads
to the use of a brand of product. The usage, in turn,
sensitizes the person to notice and read more of the
advertising of that particular brand.

05/23/2023 143
 Cont’d…………

Experimentation
An experimental design is one in which the
investigator manipulates at least one independent
variable. There are two types of experiments can
be distinguished: A laboratory experiment & A
field experiment.
05/23/2023 144
 Cont’d……….
A laboratory experiment is one in which an
investigator creates a situation with the desired
conditions and then manipulates some variables while
controlling others.
A field experiment is a research study in a realistic or
natural situation that involves the manipulation of one
or more independent variables under as carefully
controlled condition as the situation will permit.
05/23/2023 145
 Chapter 5
Data Sources
&
Methods of Data Collection

05/23/2023 146
 Chapter Outline
Source of Data
Methods of Data Collections

05/23/2023 147
05/23/2023 148
05/23/2023 149
 Data Sources
A data source is the location where data that is being used
originates from. Data can be gathered from two
major sources:
1. Primary Source
2. Secondary Source

05/23/2023 150
 Source of Data
The information collected from certain individuals
directly or indirectly.
Primary data
Interview method
Survey method
Observation method
Experimental method
Focus groups
Speech's (audio recordings, video recordings)

05/23/2023 151
 Source of data…
Secondary data Sources: published or unpublished
sources
Books
Journals
Magazines
Journals and reports
Internets and news Paper

05/23/2023 152
 Primary Data
Survey
• Survey is defined as the act of examining a process or
questioning a selected sample of individuals to obtain data
about a service, product, or process.
• Data collection surveys collect information from a targeted
group of people about their opinions, behaviour, or
knowledge.
• Most research can be divided into three different
categories: exploratory, descriptive and causal. Each serves a
different end purpose and can only be used in certain ways.
• The common types of example surveys are online surveys,
written questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone interviews,
focus groups, and electronic (e-mail or website) surveys.
05/23/2023 153
 Cont’d
• Observation Method: this is a primary method of data collection that
is used to gather data by employing vision as the only technique of
collection.

05/23/2023 154
 Cont’d
• Interview: this is a method that
requires the interviewer asking
questions in face-to-face contact
with respondent.
• Personal interview (face to face)
can be of two types: Structured
interviews & Unstructured
interview.

05/23/2023 155
 Cont’d
• Telephone Interview: a method
that uses to collect information by
contacting respondents through
telephone.
• In general, interviewers should
follow the following basic principles
while conducting interview:
• Ask only one question at a time
• Repeat the question if necessary

05/23/2023 156
 Cont’d
• Listen carefully to the subject’s answer
• Observe the interviewee’s physical expression
• Give sufficient time to answer the question

05/23/2023 157
 Cont’d
• Questionnaire: the most common method of data
collection for survey is self-administered
questionnaire.
• Questionnaire is a form containing a cover letter
that explains about the person conducting the
survey and the objectives of the survey, and a set
of related questions which will be answered by the
respondents.
• One of the most important points in preparing
questionnaire is that all questions in it must have
relevance to the objectives of the survey.
05/23/2023 158
 Cont’d

05/23/2023 159
 Cont’d
• In short, the following points should be
kept in mind while designing a
questionnaire:
 A Question should be simple, short and easy to
understand and it should convey one & only one
idea.
 Sensitive questions should be avoided.
 Focusing on the objectives
 Ask relevance questions
 Answers to the questions should not require any
calculation.
 Questions should be capable of objective answers.
05/23/2023 160
 Cont’d
• Interview Questionnaires: are list
of questions (questionnaires) that are
either delivered by hand to be
answered by respondents or read by
the trained interviewer to respondents
and record the answer given.
• Having questionnaires administered
by the interviewer have many
advantages than questionnaires filled
by the respondents.
• Some of the advantages are:
05/23/2023 161
 Cont’d
 Higher response rate.
 Decreased number of “I don’t know” & “no
answer”.
 Probing for an answer.
 Providing a guard against confusing questions.

05/23/2023 162
 Cont’d
• Mail Questionnaires: are questionnaires
sent by post to the person concerned
(respondent) with a request to answer the
questions and return them back by a
certain post address.
• Mail questionnaires have low response
rate.
• But, this response rate can be improved by
following up mailing and other techniques
like good ethical considerations in the
questionnaire, making items (questions)
clear, etc.
05/23/2023 163
 Cont’d
• Questionnaires Through
Internet: are questionnaires sent
through internet (email) to be
furnished with the appropriate
answers by the intended
respondent and returned back
after filled, through the same
media (internet) of a particular
email address.

05/23/2023 164
 General Guidelines for
Questionnaire Preparation
Keep the language simple.
Keep questions short but
effective.
Avoid double barreled
questions.
Avoid questions in negative
manner.
Ask questions only where
respondents are likely to have
05/23/2023 165
 Cont’d

• Try to ensure that the questions

mean the same thing to all the
respondents.
• Avoid prestige bias.
• Avoid direct questions on sensitive
topics.
• Avoid creating options.

05/23/2023 166
 Collection of Secondary
Data
• It is a method of data collection
through which the researcher does
not obtain the data directly, rather
he or she gathers them from
published and/or unpublished
materials (sources).
• Secondary data should be used
with utmost care.

05/23/2023 167
 Cont’d

The investigator, before using these data, must observe

that they possess the following characteristics:
• Reliability of Data
• Suitability of Data
• Adequacy of Data

05/23/2023 168
 Chapter 6
Sampling Techniques,
Data Processing,
Analysis & Interpretation

05/23/2023 169
 Chapter Outline
Sampling Concept
Sampling Method/Techniques
Data Analysis and
Interpretation

05/23/2023 170
 Definition of Sampling
 Sampling is defined as the process of selecting a
number of observations (subjects) from all the
observations (subjects) from a particular group or
population.
 The general aim of sampling methods is to obtain a
sample that is representative of the target population.
 Sampling is selecting a number of units from a
defined population.

05/23/2023 171
 Cont’d

05/23/2023 172
 Basic Concepts Related to
• PopulationSampling
• Census
• Sample
• Parameter
• Statistic
• Sampling Frame
• Sampling Unit
• Sampling Scheme
• Sampling
05/23/2023 173
 Cont’d
• Population is the complete collection of all
elements to be studied.
• Census is the collection of data from every
element in a population.
• Sample is any subset of measurements selected
from the population.
• Parameter is a numerical measurement
describing some characteristics of a population.
(Mean or standard deviation,,,)

05/23/2023 174
 Cont’d
• Statistic is a numerical measurement describing some
characteristics of a sample.
• Sampling Frame is a list of all elements of the
population. Eg: The total number of homes locality
• Sampling unit:- unit may be a geographical one such
as homes, district, kebele, village, etc., or a social unit
such as family, school, etc.,
• Sampling is a process of selecting a small number of
elements from a larger defined target group of elements.
• Sampling Scheme: Methods of selecting sampling
units from sampling frame. (Randomly,,,,,
05/23/2023 175
 Cont’d
• Census
It is a complete coverage of all the elements of
the target population.
It is also known as 'complete enumeration' or
'100% enumeration' or 'complete survey'.
Census method is the method of statistical
enumeration where all members of the
population are studied.

05/23/2023 176
Characteristics of a good sample design
Sample design must
Result in a truly representative sample
Result in small sampling error
Be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study
Be enable to control the systematic bias in a better
way
The physical impossibility of checking all items in
the population.
177

05/23/2023
 Types Sampling Techniques
There are several sampling methods which can be
broadly classified into two categories;
1. probability sampling methods:-The sampling
method each unit in the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample. It is based
on the concept of random selection
2. Non-probability sampling:-it is the sampling method
the units are drawn using certain amount of
judgment.

05/23/2023 178
 Cont’d
 Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling (Lottery
Method)
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling

05/23/2023 179
 Cont’d
 Non-probability Sampling
1. Quota Sampling
2. Judgment Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling

05/23/2023 180
 Simple Random Sampling

 It is selecting samples so that each element in the population

has an equal chance or the same probability of being
included in the sample.

05/23/2023 181
 Systematic Sampling
 It is a type of probability sampling method in which sample
members from a larger population are selected according to
a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval.
 In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to
select every ith item on a list.
 In systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly
and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals.
 This interval, called the sampling interval (K), is calculated by
dividing the population size by the desired sample size.

05/23/2023 182
 …Systematic Sampling

 It is a type of probability sampling method in which sample

members from a larger population are selected according to a
random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval. This
interval, called the sampling interval (K), is calculated by
dividing the population size by the desired sample size.

05/23/2023 183
 Stratified Sampling

 It is a sampling in which the population is divided in to strata

and random sample is taken from the elements in each
stratum.

05/23/2023 184
 Cluster Sampling

 It is a sampling method in which the entire population of the

study is divided into externally, homogeneous but internally,
heterogeneous groups called clusters.
 After identifying the clusters, certain clusters are chosen
using simple random sampling while the others remain
unrepresented in a study.

05/23/2023 185
 Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number
of relatively small subdivisions.
 After identifying the clusters, certain clusters are chosen using
simple random sampling while the others remain unrepresented in a
study.
 An NGO wants to create a sample of girls across five neighbouring
towns to provide education. Using single-stage sampling, the NGO
randomly selects towns (clusters) to form a sample and extend help
to the girls deprived of education in those towns.

05/23/2023 186
 Non-probability Sampling

 Convenience/Incidental Sampling

 Quota Sampling

 Judgmental/ Purposive Sampling/who are ready available

 Snowball Sampling

05/23/2023 187
 Convenience Sampling

 It is where the researcher includes people who are easy to

reach.

05/23/2023 188
 Quota Sampling

 It is a method where a researcher selects a sample group to

represent some specific characteristics of the population.

05/23/2023 189
 Snowball Sampling

 It is a recruitment technique in which research participants

are asked to assist researchers in identifying other potential
subjects. For example, a researcher who is seeking to study
leadership patterns could ask individuals to name others in
their community who are influential.

05/23/2023 190
 Probability vs Non-
probability Disadvantages
Advantages Sampling
Probability
Sampling
Minimal bias Expensive
Allow for estimation of sampling Inconvenient
errors
More authentic Time consuming
Problematic with large
population
Technically skilled operator
required
Non-probability
Sampling
05/23/2023 191
Convenient Results cannot be generalized
 Sampling Error & Non-
 SamplingSampling Error
Error: a statistical error to which an
analyst exposes a model simply because he
or she is working with sample data rather
than population or census data.
 Non-Sampling Error: A statistical error
caused by human error to which a specific
statistical analysis is exposed.

05/23/2023 192
 Cont’d
• Inappropriate sampling frame
• Defective measuring device
• Enumerators mistake in measuring
what is supposed to be measured
and in analysis & reporting the
data.

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 Cont’d
• Unlike sampling errors, non-sampling
errors cannot be decreased by
increasing the sample size, however,
they can be reduced by:
• Designing an accurate (valid) measuring
instruments
• Giving enough training to the enumerators
on the way to collect an accurate data
• Checking the adequacy of the sampling
frame
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 Data Processing &
Analysis
• Data Processing
Operations
• Editing
• Coding
• Classification
• Tabulation

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 Cont’d
 Analysis of Data
 Analysis can be categorized in to
two:
1. Descriptive analysis &
2. Inferential analysis

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 Cont’d
 Descriptive Analysis
This includes:
 Data organizing (classification,
tabulation, frequency
distributions)
 Data presentation (graphical &
diagrammatic presentation)
 Calculations of certain indicators
of data like measures of central
tendency
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& measures of
197
 Cont’d
 Inferential Analysis
This includes:
 Determining relationships between
variables
 Regression analysis
 Performing hypothesis testing
 Chi-square tests
 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) etc.

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 Results Interpretation
• Interpretation refers to the task of
drawing inferences from the collected
facts after an analytical &/or
experimental study.
• In fact, it is a search for broader meaning
of research findings.
• The task of interpretation has two major
aspects; (i) the effort to establish
continuity in research through linking the
results of a given study with those of
another & (ii) the establishment of some
explanatory concepts.
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 Cont’d

• Thus, interpretation is the device

through which the factors that
seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the
course of the study can be better
understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception which can
serve as a guide for further
researches.
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 Chapter 7
Research Report Writing &
Presentation

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 1. Definition of Research
Report at the end
• As a logical conclusion,
of a given scientific
activity/research comes writing of
a report.
• Such a report is called a research
report/paper.
• A research paper is a report of
original research finding organized
into several sections according to a
format that reflects the logic of a
scientific argument.
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 2. Contents of Research
Report
The major contents of a research report are:

• A title page • Materials &

• List of tables (if Methods
any) • Results
• List of figures (if
• Discussion
any)
• Acknowledgement • Conclusion
• Table of contents • References
• Abstract/Summary • Appendix (if any)
• Introduction
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 Cont’d
• Title:
• The choice of a title depends on
the question that the author wants
to address.
• A good title attracts potential
readers.
• Generally, a title should be coined
in less than ten words and must be
appropriate for indexing systems.

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 Cont’d
Hence, a title:

 Should be clear and informative

 Should be indicative of the content
 Should be comprehensive and brief
 Should be easy for accurate
indexing
 Should be concise and descriptive

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 Cont’d
• Abstract/Summary:
• The abstract is a self-contained synopsis of
the report.
• The emphasis of the abstract is on the
results and conclusion.
• It takes the objectives from the introduction,
makes a brief reference to the materials and
methods and directly goes to summarizing
the results and closes with the conclusion.
• It is an extremely shortened summary of the
paper usually capsule into 100 - 250 words.
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 Cont’d
The abstract must be informative, telling in
a condensed form about:
 What was done during the research process
 How it was done (materials, methods,
procedures)
 What the results mean (implications and insights)
 It should summarizes the major points of the
paper
 It should be specific and concise
 It should be given in a single paragraph
 It should be able to stand by itself and make
sense.
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 Cont’d
• Introduction:
• In one or two paragraphs the author(s) must
be able to explain why the study was
undertaken.
• The introduction sets the stage for the
scientific argument that is going to be
provided later in the paper.
• It places the work into a broad theoretical
context.
• It should include a brief background of the
area of study and the problem, summary of
the pertinent literature to orient readers and
indicate the gaps in knowledge.
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 Cont’d
• Materials and Methods:
• The materials and methods section
provides enough information on the
materials used and the methods followed
so that others could repeat the study.
• It elaborates on the methods by telling
where and when the study was
conducted.
• The results of a study will be considered
valid when the materials are of the right
type and the methodology is correct.
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 Cont’d
• Results
• This is where the findings of the research
are directly reported.
• The author should summarizes the data
and illustrate the findings using different
presentation tools.
• The results have to be presented by
directly reporting the outcome from each
research activity.
• The researcher should provide the
statistical details and analysis to support
the generalizations and explanations.
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 Cont’d
• The results of most scientific findings convey
sound information when they are given in
quantitative manner and in graphic form.
• Tables and figures must be prepared with
care and used with skill.
• Tables are used for presenting numerical
values, to summarize and emphasize verbal
material.
• Figures are used to illustrate patterns,
trends, relationships (graphs), and positions
in space and structures (internal and
external).
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 Cont’d
• Discussion
• The discussion of a scientific paper
is essentially an argument
forwarded about the hypothesis
based on the results.
• It is an important section of the
paper in which the author
examines the results thoroughly
and device techniques of
summarizing the results.
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 Cont’d
• It interprets the results by:
• Supporting conclusions with evidence.
• Giving the main scientific principles
indicated by the results.
• Consolidating generalizations reached.
• Pointing out the similarities and
differences.
• Comparing the results with the other
similar findings, speculating causes and
significance and showing how conclusive
the results are.
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 Cont’d
• Identifying sources of error (if any)
• Emphasizing implications and
stimulation aspects
• Recognizing the goodness of
negative results such as no
significance, no relationship, no
direct relation, inverse relation,
etc.
• Conveying confidence and
authority in the results.
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 Cont’d
• Conclusion
• Emphasize the main finding.
• Relate the main findings to future
directions in research and
application or change in behavior.
• Give recommendations if the study
has practical relevance.

05/23/2023 215
 Cont’d
• References

• Under this section all literatures

cited should be listed following one
of the many referencing styles.

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 3. Ten Reasons Why
Reports Fail
• There is no logical structure.
• Ideas are not well thought out.
• Work is disorganized.
• Assumptions are made which
cannot be justified by evidence.
• There are too many grammatical
and spelling mistakes.

05/23/2023 217
 Cont’d (Reasons)
• Sentences and/or paragraphs are
too long or too obscure.
• It is obvious that ideas and
sentences have been taken from
other sources.
• There is too much repetition.
• There is too much irrelevant
information.
• Summary and conclusions are
weak.
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 4. Oral Presentation
• Another method of presenting your
research findings is through an oral
presentation.
• This may be at a university or college to
other students or tutors, at a conference to
other researchers or work colleagues, or in
a work place to colleagues, employers or
funding bodies.
• Power point is a useful presentation
graphics program which enables you to
create slides that can be shared live or on-
line.
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 5. DO’S While Making Oral
Presentation
• Arrive early and make sure the room is set
out in the way that you want.
• Make sure that all the equipment is available
and that you know how to work it.
• Try to relax and breathe deeply.
• Acknowledge that this is your first
presentation and people will tend to help you
along.
• Produce aide memoirs, either on cards,
paper, transparencies or presentation
software such as PowerPoint.
05/23/2023 220
 Cont’d
• Make it clear from the outset
whether you are happy to be
interrupted or whether questions
should be left for the end.
• If you have invited questions, make
sure you make every effort to
answer them.
• Look around the room while you are
speaking if it’s a small group, make
eye-contact with as many people as
possible.
05/23/2023 221
 Cont’d
• Present interesting visual information
such as graphs, charts and tables in a
format which can be viewed by
everyone. This could be
transparencies, slides, PowerPoint or
handouts.
• Alter the tone and pitch of your voice,
length of sentence and facial/hand
gestures to maintain audience interest.
• Show that you are interested in your
subject.
05/23/2023 222
 Cont’d
• Produce a paper or handout which
people can take away with them.
• Talk to people after your
presentation and ask them how it
went, whether there are any
improvements they might suggest
for future presentations.

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 6. DON’TS While Making Oral
Presentation
• Rush in late, find that the overhead
projector doesn’t work and that you
have no pen for the white board.
• Worry about showing your nerves.
Everybody gets nervous when they
first start giving presentations and
your audience should know this.
• Read straight from a paper you have
written.
05/23/2023 224
 Cont’d
• Get cross if you are interrupted and
have not mentioned that you don’t
want this to happen.
• Invite questions and then do not
answer them or patronize the inquirer.
• Look at your notes, never raising
your head.
• Produce visual information which
people can’t see, either due to its size
or print quality.
05/23/2023 225
 Cont’d
• Present in a monotone voice with
no facial/hand gestures.
• Let the audience go home without
any record of what you have said.
• Run away never to be seen again.

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 THE END OF THE
COURSE!!

ANY QUESTION?

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