States of Matter
States of Matter
States of Matter
Assist. Prof.
Dr Hasan Aldewachi
1st course syllabus
No. Lecture title Hours
Electronega
Compound Molecular tivity
Bond
Name formula difference [1
]
Hydrogen
HF H-F 1.9
fluoride
Hydrogen
HCl H-Cl 0.9
chloride
Hydrogen
HBr H-Br 0.7
bromide
Hydrogen
H2S H-S 0.4
sulfide
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9YwdeEDrfPI
Intermolecular
Forces
Factors Affecting London Forces
Answers: (a) Br2 (largest molecular weight), (b) HCl (largest polarity)
Intermolecular
Forces
How Do We Explain This?
Intermolecular
Forces
Hydrogen bonding
The interaction between a molecule containing a hydrogen atom and a
strongly electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen is of
particular interest
Because of the small size of the hydrogen atom and its large electrostatic
field, it can move in close to an electronegative atom and form an
electrostatic type of union known as a hydrogen bond or hydrogen bridge.
.
Hydrogen bonding
It accounts for many of the unusual properties of water including its high dielectric constant,
abnormally low vapor pressure, and high boiling point.
Several structures involving hydrogen bonds are shown in Figure below. The dashed lines
represent the hydrogen bridges. It will be noticed that intra- as well as intermolecular
hydrogen bonds may occur (as in salicylic acid)
PRACTICE EXERCISE
In which of the following substances is significant hydrogen
bonding possible: methylene chloride (CH2Cl2) phosphine
(PH3) hydrogen peroxide (HOOH), or acetone
(CH3COCH3)?
Answer: HOOH
Intermolecular
Forces
Bond Energy
Intermolecular
Forces
PRACTICE EXERCISE
(a) Identify the intermolecular forces present in the
following substances, and (b) select the substance with the
highest boiling point: CH3CH3, CH3OH, and CH3CH2OH.
Intermolecular
Forces
Intermolecular Forces Affect Many
Physical Properties
Intermolecular
Forces
Viscosity
• Resistance of a liquid to flow is
called viscosity.
• It is related to the ease with
which molecules can move past
each other.
• Viscosity increases with
stronger intermolecular forces
and decreases with higher
temperature.
Intermolecular
Forces
Bellwork-Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular
Forces
Polymorphism is the property of having more than one crystalline form (crystal habits).
Solvents might get trapped in the crystalline lattice, creating solvate.
Crystal habit
This even forced the removal of oral capsule from market and
reformulation of the product before it could be reintroduced to the market.
Crystal solvates exhibit a wide range of behavior depending
on the interaction between the solvent and the crystal
structure.
1. With some solvates, the solvent plays a key role in holding
the crystal together.
• For example: it may be part of a hydrogen bonded network
within the crystal structure.
• These solvates are very stable.
• They are difficult to desolvate (to remove the solvent).
• When these crystals lose their solvent they collapse and
recrystallize in a new crystal form.
• They resemble polymorphic solvates
2. In other solvates, the solvent is not part of the
crystal bonding. – It merely occupies voids in the
crystal.
These solvates lose their solvent more readily.
Desolvation does not destroy the crystal lattice.
This type has been called a pseudopolymorphic
solvate.
• For example: Spironolactone has two polymorphs
and four solvates.
– It depends on whether it is crystallized from
acetonitrile, ethanol, ethyl acetate or methanol.
– Each of these solvates is transformed to the
- The dissolution rates of solvates can vary
considerably.
- Differences in solubility and dissolution rate between
solvates can lead to measurable differences in their
bio availabilities.
Co Crystals
Co-crystals are crystalline materials composed of two or more different molecules,
typically an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and a co-former, which are solid
at room temperature. These components are held together in a specific
stoichiometric ratio through non-covalent interactions like hydrogen bonds, van der
Waals forces, or ionic bonds.
Co-crystals are used to modify and improve the physicochemical properties of an
API, such as solubility, stability, dissolution rate, and mechanical properties, without
altering the molecular structure of the API itself.
Examples: A well-known example is a co-crystal of ibuprofen and
nicotinamide, which has improved solubility compared to pure ibuprofen.
The objective for pharmaceutical cocrystals is to have properties that differ
from that expected of the pure APIs without making and/or breaking
covalent bonds
Preparation of amorphous materials