Heat transfer

1
• Heat is a form of energy.
• According to principles of thermodynamics, whenever a
physical or chemical transformation occurs, heat flows into or
leaves the system.
• A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale
operations.
• Steam and electric power are the chief sources to transfer
heat.
• It is essential to convey steam without any losses to the
apparatus in which it is used.
• The study of heat transfer processes helps in designing the
plant efficiently and economically.

2
• Applications:
1. evaporation: heat is supplied in order to convert a liquid into a
vapor, which is subsequently removed. This process is used for
preparing vegetable extracts. A construction similar to shell and
tube heat exchanger is employed in evaporators. The heat flow
can be quantified so as to estimate the efficiency of the
process.
2. Distillation: heat is supplied to a liquid mixture for converting
the liquid into vapor so that the individual vapor components
are condensed at another place. In case of steam distillation,
steam will be in direct contact with the material.
3. Drying: in the production of tablets, heat is passed through a
carrier gas over a bed of wet solid mass for achieving drying. In
case of spray drying, heat is supplied to the solutions and
suspensions.

3
• Crystallization: saturated solution is heated to bring about
supersaturation, which promotes the crystallization of drugs.
On the other hand, removal of heat (Cooling) from a saturated
solution also facilitates crystallization, as In case of
purification of bulk drugs
• Sterilization: for the sterilization of pharmaceuticals,
autoclaves are used with steam as heating medium. Dry heat
is used for the sterilization of glass apparatus and other
containers.
• In number of other processes, like boiling, exsiccation,
sublimation and fusion, also use heat.
• In lab no. of equipment involve use of heat like air ovens,
incubators, dryers, refrigerators etc.
• On industrial scale, equipment are used for applying heat,
removing heat and preventing heat loss.
4
 Mechanism of heat flow

• Conduction: when heat flow is achieved by the transfer of the

momentum of individual atoms or molecules without mixing,
such as a process is known as conduction. E.g. flow of heat
through metal shell of boiler takes place by conduction as far
as solid wall or shell is considered. No mixing is involved.
Conduction is limited to solids and fluids whose movement is
restricted.

5
• Convection: when the heat flow is achieved by actual mixing
of warmer proportions with cooler portions of the same
material, the process is known as convection.
• E.g. heating of water by a hot surface (coil type water heater)
is mainly by convection. It is restricted to flow of heat in fluids
(i.e. liquids and gases). Convection current of air set up almost
daily in atmosphere. These are responsible for winds, land
and sea breezes, ocean currents, etc.
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• Radiation: when heat flows through space by means of
electromagnetic waves. Such energy transfer is known as
radiation.
• Eg. Black surface absorbs most of he radiation received by it.
Simultaneously the absorbed energy is quantitatively transferred
into heat. Fused quartz transmits all the radiations that strikes it.
• These mechanisms operate simultaneously. E.g. in hot air oven,
air is circulated by fan, so as to transfer heat by forced
convection. Simultaneously, heat is transferred by conduction
from the shelf to the material in contact. Heat also radiates from
the wall of the oven.
7
 Conduction
• Heat can flow only when there is a temperature gradient, i.e.
heat flows from a hot surface to a cold surface. The rate of
conduction through solids can be studied easily, since it is the
sole phenomenon.
• The basic law of heat transfer by conduction can be written in
the form of a rate equation
• Rate = driving force/ resistance
The driving force is temperature drop across the solid surfaces.
The greater the temperature drop, the greater will be the rate of
heat flow.
The flow heat will also depend on the conductivity of the
material through which it is flowing. E.g. conduction of heat is
faster through iron rod than through a wooden log. The factor is
represented by the term resistance, which can be quantitatively
expressed by Fourier's law, 8
It is equation for resistance from the Fourier’s law.

Fourier’s law – conduction of heat through a metal wire

Fourier’s law states that the rate of heat flow through a uniform material is
proportional to the area and the temperature drop and inversely proportional
to the length of the path of flow.

It can be expressed as

Where, Km mean proportionality constant, W/m.K

9
• Derivation; Fourier’s law can be applied to a metal wall through which
conduction of heat is taking place. The characteristics are as follows:
Area of the wall = A, m2
Thickness of the wall = L, m
Face of the wall (HH) is maintained at a uniform, definite and higher temp.
= t1 K
Face of the wall (CC) is maintained at a lower, but uniform temperature =
t2, K
The heat flow will be at right angles to the plane A and is assumed to be in
a steady state.
Consider a thin section of thickness dL at an intermediate point in the wall.
This section is parallel to the plane, A. Fourier’s law may be applied as
=
Q – heat transferred, J
q - time, Sec
K- proportionality constant, W/m.K
10
t – temperature, K
• The constant K is a function of temperature but independent of
length. The minus sign indicates the decrease in temperature in
the direction of flow. In eqn, represents the temperature
gradient. For a steady state heat transfer, eqn changes to:
=
Where, q= rate of heat transfer, J/s (W)

11
• The temperature difference in the intermediate section is not
known. But temperatures at two faces of the wall are known.
The area, A, may vary with L, but is independent of
temperature. By separating the variables, eqn can be written as

Integrating eqn between limits

L= 0 when t = t1 and
L = L (total thickness) when t = t2

Rearranging eqn,

Where, mean proportionality constant, W/m.K

12
• In steady state heat transfer, q remains constant. The term
indicates the driving force. Equation can be rearranged as

Comparing the above eqn, with rate expression,

Thus the Fourier's law is used to define resistance in quantitative

terms.

13
• Applications:
Thermal conductivity is the reciprocal of thermal resistance. Thermal
conductivity of a solid is expressed in terms of as per equation.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat that
flows across a unit surface area in unit time, when the temperature
drop is unity.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity depends upon the material
with which the body is made and upon its temperature.
Thermal conductivities of liquids and gases are very small compared
to most of the solids. In other words, the resistance offered by liquids
and gases is high as far as conduction is concerned.
In case of steam jacketed kettle (inner surface) must have good
conductivity so that maximum amount of heat passes from the steam
to contents. The high thermal conductivity of copper suggests that it
is a suitable material for the construction of kettle.

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• At the same time, metal used for jacket (outer surface) should
have minimum conductivity to prevent loss of heat by
conduction and radiation. The lower thermal conductivity of
iron suggests that it would be suitable material for the
construction of jacket. Such materials should be resistant to
solvent or chemical action of liquid.
• For the construction of evaporators and tubular heat
exchangers thermal conductivity values are important.
Thermal conductivity is very sensitive to changes in chemical
composition and temperature.

15
 Heat flow through a cylinder
• In a heat exchanger, hot fluid or stream is passed through the
circular pipe. The hot fluid transfers the heat to the inner
surface of the pipe wall. Further heat transfer takes place by
conduction through the pipe wall. The rate of heat transfer by
conduction through a cylinder may be obtained.
• Consider a hollow cylinder as shown in fig. The heat is flowing
from inside to outside the cylinder. Consider a very thin
cylinder at the center of the pipe.

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17
• The heat flow (in watts) is considered as parallel and the rate of heat transfer(q)
can be written as

Where is the area of the heating surface i.e. the interior of the cylinder. The mean
surface area () may be written as circumference multiplied by length of cylinder.
Considering the variables such as radius and temperature, equation is rearranged as

Integrating above equation within limits of

R = r1 when t = t1
R = r2 when t = t2
It becomes

(A)

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• This equation can be used to calculate rate of heat flow through a
thick walled cylinder.
• The rate of heat flow can be expressed in more convenient form,

(B)
By equating right hand side of above two equations,
The area of a surface may be obtained as

Since L is thickness, it is related to thickness of tube, i.e. (r2 – r1 ) of the

cylinder. This value is substituted for L and rearranging to obtain Am
(mean area of cylinder)

area may be considered as . Mean radius can be written as,

is denoted as logarithmic mean radius. It is less convenient than

arithmetic mean. Arithmetic mean is sufficiently accurate, if the tube is19
thin walled.
• This relationship is explained as,
• If the value < 3.20 reflects that the wall is thick. If arithmetic
mean radius is used, the result will be within 10% .
• If the value < 1.5, reflects that the wall is thin. If arithmetic
mean diameter is used, the results will be within 1%.
• arithmetic mean radius is sufficiently accurate, if the cylinder
is thin walled.
• logarithmic mean radius is used, if the cylinder is thick
walled.

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 Conduction through fluids
• Conduction in liquids is usually small and this presents a
considerable obstacle for heat transfer. Conductance in fluids
is because of eddies set up by the changes in density with
temperature, which is observed in the boiling of liquids.
• Conduction through fluids rarely occurs in practice, except
when heat flows through thin films. In these cases, the
thickness of the film is not exactly known.

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 Convection
• When heat flow is achieved by actual mixing of warmer portions
with cooler portions of the same material, the process is known as
convection.
• The heat transfer in fluid occurs on account of actual mixing of its
layer.
• Forced convection: - Mixing of fluid may be obtained by the
use of a stirrer or agitator or pumping the fluid for recirculation.
Such a process in heat transfer is designated as forced convection.
For example, in some types of tube evaporators, the evaporators,
the evaporating liquid is forced through the tubes under pressure.
Therefore forced convection is observed.
• Natural convection: - Mixing of fluid may be accomplished by
the currents set up, when body of fluid is heated. Such a process is
known as natural convection. For example, in a pan evaporator,
convection currents are set up in evaporating liquid. 22
• In general, fluid flow may be described as either laminar or
turbulent. These create problems in the estimations. Some of them
are as follows. When heat is passed through the tube, stagnant
films are important in determining the rate of heat transfer.
• When fluid exhibits viscous flow, the velocity is zero at the actual
surface of the wall. It means that the layer of fluid adjacent to the
wall acts as a stagnant film.
• A comparatively stagnant film can be observed even in turbulent
flow. At the center, the fluid is in turbulent flow, while at the
surface the fluid exhibit viscous flow. A film of buffer layer
oscillates between these type of flow
• Sometimes, scales are deposited on the surface of the metal wall
and heat must be conducted through the scales.
• When steam gives up latent heat, water condenses on the surface
of vessel (or tube). Again the heat must be conducted through this
water film.
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• For heat transfer in a tube, heat must pass through the stagnant
film by conduction. Hence, conductivity of these films is
important.
• Normally, thermal conductivities of fluids are low. The
conductivity of the stagnant film will be still less.
• For example the thermal conductivity of water is less. A film
of water has a resistance of about 500 times and that of air
film is about 13,000 times greater than copper sheet of the
same thickness.
• Thus, the resistance offered by these films (though it is thin) is
large for the heat flow. Beyond these films, the turbulence
brings about rapid equalization of temperature.
• Therefore, the resistance offered by the boundary film is of
importance in the flow of heat, particularly in the evaporation
process.
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 Radiation
• Radiation is a process in which heat flows. Heat is transferred
through space by means of electromagnetic waves.
• Thermal Radiation
• Heat transfer by radiation is known as thermal radiation. Radiation
is effective across perfect vacuum and also through layers of air.
• All solid bodies radiate energy when their temperatures are above
the absolute zero. A solid surface emits radiant energy continuously
and distributes over all wavelengths (i.e., from zero to infinity),
although a major portion is concentrated within a relatively narrow
range of wavelengths
• Heat transfer (thermal energy) is predominant as the temperature
of the body increases. The amount and kind of thermal energy
radiated increases rapidly with temperature. Thermal radiation
usually occurs simultaneously with heat transfer by convection and
conduction. 25
Various Forms of Emitters
Various forms of emitters used for the supply of radiant energy are
given below:

Radiation source Wavelength Applications

IR Lamp (1000oC) 1 µm high intensity radiation.

Ceramic rods and panels 2 to 4 µm

heated by gas or electricity pharmaceutical purposes,
(5000 to 300oC) thermolabile substances.

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• Advantages:
• The radiation source corresponding to wavelengths from 0.8 to
400 µm is used for the thermal radiation.
• For most cases of industrial interest, the range is narrowed from
0.8 to 25 µm. radiant energy penetrates a short distance (1 to 2
µm) in to materials.
The heating effect occurs below the surface. For example, a film
of solution can be dried by radiant heat, whereas surface skin
retards the drying process in case of convection method.
• Fundamental Concepts
• Thermal radiation obeys same laws of light, namely-
• It travels in a straight line
• It may be reflected from the surface

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• Suppose a cold substance is placed in the sight of hot body
inside an enclosed space. The cold body intercepts the
radiation emitted by the hot body. The fraction of radiations
falling on the body may be reflected, which is known as
reflectivity, ρ. The fraction that is absorbed is known as
absorptivity, α. The fraction that is transmitted is known as
transmissivity, τ. The sum of these fractions must be unity or:
α+ρ+τ=1
• In practice, reflected and transmitted radiation usually fall on
other absorptive bodies. The absorbed radiation is transformed
into heat. This traction is not available for the emission of
radiation.

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 Black Body
• All solid bodies radiate energy at a temperature above the
absolute zero, however, not at the same rate. For the purpose
of heat transfer, a theoretic substance is proposed and
designated as black body.
• Black body is defined as a body that radiates maximum
possible amount of energy at a given temperature.
• No physical substance is a perfect black body. The black
matter surface approaches a black body, when visible light
(rays) alone is considered. Light colored substance deviate
widely from it. Black surfaces are better emitters of heat
radiation than polished surfaces. Further the term ‘black’ is
nothing to do with the color of the body. Similarly it has
nothing to do with the amount of energy it radiates.

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• In theory, a black body is considered to be an enclosed space
with a small (negligible) opening.
• The temperature in the enclosed space should be constant and
uniform, because the amount of energy escaping through a
small opening is negligible.
• In practice, a convenient black body is made from a tube of
carbon. Both the ends are plugged, with a small hole at the
center of one end. When viewed through this small hole, the
inside enclosed space (furnace) is considered as a black body
provided the temperature is uniform. Similarly all objects
within the furnace (enclosed space) can be considered as black
bodies
• A good absorber of heat is a good emitter too. Conversely a
poor absorber is a poor emitter.

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 Rate of Radiation
• Normally, hot bodies emit radiation. Stefan-Boltzmann law
gives the total amount of radiation emitted by a black body.
(1)
Where, q = energy radiated per second, W (or J/s)
A = area of radiating surface, m2
T = absolute temperature of radiating surface, K
b = constant, W/m2 ٠K4
• According to equation (1), the rate of heating depends upon
the temperature and the surface area of the emitter. At the
same time, it also depends upon the absorption capacity of
the material to be heated.
• For black body, the value of b is 5.67×10-8 W/ m2 ٠K4. Actual
bodies do not radiate as much as the black body
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• Therefore, equation (1) is modified for the actual bodies
(2)
• Where, ε is equal to the emissivity of the actual body. Emissivity
may be expressed at the same temperature as:
(3)
• As per equation (3), emissivity is one for a black body. For
actual bodies, ε is less than one, because a fraction of the
radiation is absorbed, which appears as heat. The fraction of
energy absorbed is denoted by absorptivity, α (other fraction are
either reflected or transmitted).
• A good absorber of heat is also a good emitter at a given
temperature. If emissivity is equal to absorptivity (ε=α), then
substance is considered as a black body. Since emissivity of a
black body is 1, the absorptivity must be one. Therefore the
black body absorbs all the radiations falling on it.

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 HEAT EXCHANGERS AND HEAT INTERCHANGERS
• Most of the chemical and pharmaceutical industries employ a
variety of heat transfer equipment. The materials to be heated may
be liquids or gases and occasionally solids (which is a separate case
by itself). The heating media may be a hot fluid or condensed
steam. Some of the processes, which involve that heat transfer
encountered in pharmacy, are:
• Preparation of starch paste (steam jacketed kettles) for granulation
• Crystallization
• Evaporation
• Distillation
• In industrial processes, heat energy is transferred by various
methods.

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• Heat exchanger: Heat exchangers are the devices used for
transferring heat from one fluid (hot gas or steam) to another
fluid (liquid) through a metal wall.
• Heat interchangers: Heat interchangers are the devices used
for transforming heat from one liquid to another or from one
gas to another gas through a metal wall.
• The classification given above is vague and many times used
interchangeably. Therefore it is approximate to call them as
heat transfer equipment.

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 Heaters or Heat Exchangers
• Heat Exchangers are the devices used for transferring heat from
one fluid (hot gas or steam)to another fluid (liquid) through a
metal wall.
• Some heat transfer (or heaters) equipment are:
• Tubular heater(shell- and- tube heater)
• Multipass heater
• Two pass floating head heater
• In heat exchangers, the film coefficients on the steam side are
usually much larger than the film coefficients on the cold liquid
side. Therefore, the overall heat coefficient will be nearer to the
cold liquid side (because it is smaller of the two coefficients).
Hence, heat transfer becomes less.

35
• The efficiency can be improved by passing the liquid at a high
velocity. As a result, the thickness and resistance of the liquid
film decrease. Normally, the space outside the tubes is large,
but steam velocity is low. Still heat exchangers are useful,
because of the high values of the steam film coefficients.

36
 Tubular heater (Shell-and-tube heater)
• Shell-and-tube heater is the simplest from of a
tubular heater. It is a single-pass tubular heater.

37
• Construction: - The construction of a simple tubular heater is
shown in fig. Tubular heater consists of a bundle of parallel
tubes, which are relatively thin walled. The ends of these tubes
are expanded into two tube sheets, B1 and B2. The bundle of
tubes is enclosed in a cylindrical shell or casing, C, to which
the tube-sheets are fitted. Many heaters have a cast iron shell.
• Two distribution chambers D1 and D2 are provided at each
end of the casing C. Fluid inlet is provided to the distribution
chamber D2. The heater fluid outlet is provided to the
distribution chamber D1. Two covers, E1 and E2 are provided
to close the distribution chambers from the sides. Stream or
others vapor is introduced by a connection, F. Provisions are
made for the escape of non-condensable vapors K and
condensed vapors to drain at G.

38
• Working: - Steam or other vapors is introduced through a
connection F into the space surrounding the tubes. The steam
flows down the tubes. In this process, the tubes get heated. The
condensed vapor is drained at G. Non-condensable gases, if any,
escape through the vent K provided at the top of the casing.
• The fluid to be heated is pumped through the connection H into
distributing chamber D2. The fluid flows through the tubes. The
steam and fluid are physically separated, but are in thermal
contact through the thin tube walls. The fluid in the tubes gets
heated due to heat transfer by conduction through the metal wall,
followed by stagnant layer and finally by convection. The total
heat transfer is affected by single pass of fluid. Thus heated fluid
reaches the distributing chamber D1 and leave through the exit
point, I.
• In the sheet-and-tube heater, the cross sectional area of the tubes
is larger. Hence, the velocity of the fluid inside the tube is low.
39
• Advantages: - In single-pass tubular heater, large heating
surface can be packed into a small volume.
• Disadvantages: - (1) The velocity of fluid flowing in these
tubes is low, because of large cross-sectional area or larger
surface.
(2) The expansion of the tubes and shell takes place due to
different in temperature,. This may lead to the loosing of the tube
sheets or buckle the tubes.

40
 Multipass heater

• In a multi-pass heater, the velocity of fluid can be increased.

As a result, heat transfer coefficient also increases. As the
name indicates, the liquid to be heated is passed through the
tubes several times before leaving the equipment. This facility
the heat transfer. Therefore, multipass tubular heaters are
superior to the single-pass shell-tube heater.

41
42
• Construction:- The construction of a multipass heater is same
as tubular heater, however, with some modifications.
• Tubular multipass heater consist of a bundle of parallel tubes.
The ends of these are expanded into two tubes sheets.
• The tubes bundle is wrapped in a cylindrical casing.
• Two distribution chambers are provided at each end of the
casing. Since the heater is multipass, the same liquid has to
flow through several tubes back and forth.
• In order to facilitate this process, distribution chambers are
partition by means of baffles and their arrangements are
different in the two chambers.
• The entrance and exit points of the fluid are arranged in the
same distribution chamber (right side).

43
• Working: - Stream is introduced through the connection into space
surrounding the tubes. As the steam flows down, the tubes get
heated. The condensed vapors is drained. Non-condensable gases, if
any, escape through the vent provided at the top of the casing.
• The fluid to be heated is pumped at high velocities into the right
distribution chamber through the compartment, A. High velocity
facilitates the effective heat transfer.
• In this construction , fluid is directed to enter only a fraction of the
tubes by means of baffles placed in the distribution chamber.
• The liquid enters compartment A and flows to the left into
compartments B, back to the right to compartment, and so on in the
same sequence of alphabetical order.
• During this process fluid in the tubes get heated, due to heat transfer
by conduction through the metal wall, followed by a stagnant layer
and finally by convection. Thus, the fluid passes back and forth
through the several tubes and then leaves the equipment at I.
44
• If the fluid is to be introduced at high velocities, pumping should be
effective, which increases the cost of the power, through the cost of heater
is low. Too low a velocity saves power for pumping, but needs a very large
heater. Therefore, balanced approaches should be worked out based on
economy.

• Advantages: - Multipass construction decreases the cross section of the

fluid path, thereby increases the fluid velocity. Thus, multipass tubular
heaters are superior to the single-pass shell-and-tube heater.

• Disadvantages: - (1) The fabrication of multipass heater is more

complicated. (2) The pressure-drop through the apparatus is increased,
because of enhance velocity of fluid flow. (3) More number of exit and
entrance points increases the friction losses. This increases the cost of
45
pumping of fluid.
 Floating-head two-pass heater

• In floating-head two-pass heater, the ends of

the tubes are structurally independent of the
shell.

46
• Construction: The construction of a two-pass floating head
heater is shown in fig. Its construction is the same as tubular
heater with some modifications.
• Two-pass floating head heater consists of bundle of parallel
tubes. These are enclosed in a shell (casing).
• The right-side of the distribution chamber is partitioned and
fluid inlet and outlet are connected to the same chamber.
• The partition is such that both have equal number of tubes. On
left-side, the distribution chamber is not connected to the
casing. It is structurally independent, which is known as
floating head.
• The other end of the tubes is embedded into the floating head.
Steam or others vapour is introduced through inlet provided to
the shell. Provisions are made for the escape of non-condensed
vapors and an exit for the condensate.
47
• Working: Steam is introduced through the inlet. As the flows
down the tubes, they get heated. The condensed vapour escape
through the bottom of the shell. Non-condensable gases, if any,
escape through the vent at the top of the shell.
• The fluid to be heated is introduced into distribution chamber
on right-side of the heater. The fluid flows through few tubes
present in that part of the partition.
• The fluid reaches the floating head and changes direction. Now
it passes back to the next part of the partition chamber on right-
side. Therefore, the fluid flows twice through the tubes, i.e., two
pass.
• During this process, fluid in the tubes get heated, due to heat
transfer by conduction through the metal wall, followed by a
stagnant layer and finally by convection. Then the fluid leaves
the outlet provided in the shell.
48
• Advantages: In a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, tubes and
shell may get expanded due to differences in temperature.
Similarly contraction is also possible when heater is switched
off. It leads to loosening of tubes sheets or buckles (fastens)
the tubes. Therefore, constructing the tubes independent of the
shell can prevent these effects. Such an arrangement is floating
head.

49
 Heat Interchangers
• Heat interchangers are the device used for transferring heat from one
liquid to another or from one gas to another gas through a metal wall.
• In heat Interchangers, the heating medium is a hot liquid. The liquid to
be heated is the cold liquid. In this case, the film coefficients both
outside and inside the tubes are nearly of same magnitude.
• The value of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, will be near that of
the smaller of the two film coefficients. Hence, heat transfer is not
efficient.
• The film coefficients can be enhanced by increasing the velocity of flow.
• From the point of construction, it is difficult to increases the velocity of
the hot fluid outside the tubes.
• However, surface area of contact can be increased, by introducing
baffles in the coefficient. The increased surface area of contact enhances
the coefficient.
• Thus the rate of the transfer is enhanced. These principles are illustrated
using different heat interchangers. 50
 Baffles
• baffles consists of circular discs of sheet metal with one side
cut away. These are perforated to receive tube. To minimize
leakage, the clearance between the baffles, shell and tubes
should be small. The baffles are supported by one or more
guide rods, which are fastened between the tubes sheets by
set-screws.
• Working: baffles are placed outside the tubes. These
increases the velocity of liquid outside the tubes. Baffles make
the liquid flow more or less right outside the tubes. Therefore,
baffles constitute an important part in the heat transfer. The
construction of liquid-to-liquid heat interchangers illustrates
the principle of introducing the baffles into the equipment.

51
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger
The basic construction and working of any heat transfer equipment
more or less remain the same. Only a few modifications are
included.

52
• Construction: The construction of liquid-to-liquid heat
interchangers is shown in figure. Normally, tube sheets, spacer
rods and baffles are assembled first and then tubes are instilled.
• The most important parts assembled first and then tubes are
instilled. The most important parts in the construction of the heat
interchangers are the baffles.
• Appropriate tube sheets is chosen for the fabrication.
• One or more guide rods are fixed to the tubes sheets by means of
set-screws.
• Baffles consist of circular discs of a metal sheet, with one side cut
away. Baffles are placed at appropriate place using guide rods.
• The baffles are arranged with appropriate spacing using shorts
sections of the same tubing as shown in figure.
• Baffles have perforation through which tubes are inserted.
• The ends tubes are expanded into the tubes sheet.
53
• The above assembly is enclosed in a shell.
• The shell has a provision for introducing the
heating medium, hot fluid. The outlet for the
fluid is at right-side top.
• On each side of the tubes, two distribution
chambers are provided.
• Left-side chambers contains an inlet for fluid to
be heated. The outlet for distribution chamber.

54
• Working: The hot fluid (heating medium) is pumped from the left-
side top of the shell. The fluid flows outside the tubes and moves
down directly to the bottom.
• Then, it changes the direction and rises again. This process is
continued till it leaves the heater.
• Baffles also allows the fluid to flow more or less right angles to the
tube, which creates more turbulence.
• These help in reducing the resistance to heat transfer outside the
tubes. Baffles lengthen the path and decreases the cross-section of
path of the cold fluid.
• The path of travel is as shown in figure 5-14. The baffles get
heated and provided greater surface area for heat transfer.
• Simultaneously , during the flow, tubes also get heated. As a result,
the film coefficient inside the tube also increases.
• The liquid to be heated is pumped through the inlet provided on
left-side distribution chamber.
55
• The liquid passes through the tubes and gets heated.
• The flow of liquid is single-pass.
• The heated liquid is collected from the right-hand side
distribution chamber.
• Advantages: In liquid-to-liquid interchangers, heat transfer is
rapid as the liquid.
(1) Passes at high velocity outside the tubes.
(2) Flows more or less at right angles to the tubes.

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 Double-pipe heat interchangers
• In a liquid-to-liquid heat interchangers, the fluid to be heated
is passed only once through the tubes before it gets discharged,
i.e. single pass. The heat transfer in this case is not efficient.
When few tubes per pass are desirable, double pipe heat
interchanger is employed.

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• Construction: The construction of double-pipe heat
interchangers is shown in fig.
• This, two pipes are used: one is inserted in the other. The
inside pipe (or tube) is used for the pumping of cold liquid to
be heated.
• The outer pipe acts as a jacket for the circulation of the hot
liquid. All jacketed section are inter-connected.
• Normally, the number of pipe sections is few. The length of
the pipe is also less.
• Glass tube, standard iron pipe and graphite constructions are
available.
• Standard metal pipes are assembled with standard return
bends.
• A proper number of such pipes are connected in parallel and
stacked vertically. The pipes may have longitudinal fins on58its
outer surface.
• Working: The hot liquid (heating medium) is pumped into the
jacketed section.
• The hot fluid is circulated through the annular spaces between
them and carried from one section to the next-section. Finally it
leaves the jacket.
• In this process the pipes get heated, while the hot fluid looses its
temperature.
• The liquid to be heated is pumped through the inlet provided at
right side. The liquid gets heated up and flows through the bent
tube into the next section of the pipe.
• The liquid further gets heated. The same liquid continues to flow
and finally leaves the interchangers through the exit point on the
right side.
• Uses: Double pipe heat interchangers is useful when not more
then 0.9 to 1.4 meter square of surface is required.
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 Finned tubes
• The general heat transfer rate (q) equation in a heat exchange is:
q = UA Δt
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
A = area of the heating surface, m2
Δt = difference in temperature on both sides of the tube, K
• Consider the case of a heat exchanger in which air is present outside the
tubes and steam is inside the tubes. Air gets heated due to heat transfer
through the tube wall. The heat transfer coefficient on the steam side
surface is very high, while it is extremely low on air-side. As a result,
the overall coefficient, U, approximates that of the lower side, i.e., air-
side. Since, U is decreased, the only way to increases q is to increase
the surface area term, A, on the air-side.
• As metal generally have high thermal conductivity, the temperature of
the metal surface approximate to that of steam. Surface area of contact
is enhanced by fixing fins on outside of the tubes, without putting more
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number of tubes in the heater.
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• Construction: A variety of fine are used as shown in fig.
• Fine may be placed on the inner wall as on the outside of the
tubes.
• Rectangular discs of metal may be placed at right angles to the
tube (figure5-16a). Longitudinal fins are also employed (figure
5-16b). Spiral fins may be attached to the tubes. (figure5-16c).
• Uses: Fins vary greatly in the size of the apparatus. They also
increase the surface area of contact. This in turn enhances the
rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger. In double-pipe heat
interchanger, fines are employed.
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 Heat insulation

• the distribution of steam through the pipe can be reduced using

heat insulators. The pipes should be lagged, i.e., covered with
a layer of porous, poor conducting material such as kieselguhr,
asbestos and glass wool.
• Alternatively, several layer of aluminum foil can be applied
for affective insulation. The surface of the foil prevents the
radiation losses and air trapped between the layer minimizes
convection losses.
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 References
1. C.V.S Subrahmanyam et al., Pharmaceutical
engineering principles and practices –Vallabh
Prakashan.
2. Physical pharmaceutics- C.V.S Subrahmanyam et
al., Vallabh Prakashan

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