Definition

⚫ A recurrence relation, is a recursive function

T(n), variable n. ofinteger
⚫ Like all recursive functions, it has both recursive case
and base case.
⚫ Example:

⚫ The portion of the definition that does not contain T is

called the base case of the recurrence relation; the
portion that contains T is called the recurrent or
recursive case.
⚫ Recurrence relations are useful for expressing the
1
running times (i.e., the number of basic operations
Example: Fibonacci Sequence
⚫The Fibonacci is defined by
sequence recurrence the
relation
⚫ fn = fn-1 + fn-2,
n>=3 and initial
conditions
⚫fFibonacci
1 = 1, fSequence:
2 = 1. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13, 21,…….

2
Forming Recurrence Relation
⚫ Example 1: Write the recurrence relation for the following
method.

void f(int n) {
if (n > 0)
{
cout<<n;
f(n-1);
} }

⚫ The base case is reached when n == 0. The method performs

one comparison. Thus, the number of operations when n == 0,
T(0), is some constant a.
⚫ When n > 0, the method performs two basic operations and then
calls itself,
using ONE recursive call, with a parameter n – 1.
⚫ Therefore the recurrence relation
T(0)is:
=a where a is constant
T(n) = b + where b is constant, 3
T(n-1) n>0
Forming Recurrence Relation
⚫ Example 2: Write the recurrence relation for the
following method.
int g(int n) {
if (n == 1)
return 2;
else
return g(n /
2) + g( n
/ 2) + 5;
⚫ The }base case is reached when n == 1. The
method performs one comparison and
one return statement. Therefore, T(1), is constant c.
⚫ When n>1, the method performs TWO recursive calls,
each with the parameter n/2, and some constant # of
basic operations.
⚫ Hence, the recurrence relation is:
4
 Solving Recurrences
• Iteration Method
• Recursion Tree Method
• Master Method
• Change of Variable Method
 Iteration method
⚫ In this method the recurrence is expanded as
summation of terms and finally the summation
provides the solution
⚫ In evaluating the summation one or more of
the following summation formulae may be used:
⚫ Arithmetic series:

•Special Cases of Geometric

Series:

⚫ Geometric Series:

6
 Iteration method
 Harmonic
Series:

 Other
s:

7
 The Method of Iteration
• Let {ai} be the sequence defined by:

ak = ak−1 + 2 with a0 = 1.
• Plugging values of k into the relation, we get:
a1 = a0 + 2 = 1 + 2

a2 = a1 + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 = 1 + 2(2)

a3 = a2 + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 + 3(2)

a4 = a3 + 2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 + 4(2)
• Continuing in this fashion reinforces the apparent pattern that
an = 1 + n(2) = 1 + 2n.
• This brute force technique is the Method of Iteration.
 The Iteration Method
T(n) = c + T(n/2)

T(n) = c + T(n/2) T(n/2) = c + T(n/4)

= c + c + T(n/4)
T(n/4) = c + T(n/8)
= c + c + c + T(n/8) +---+ T(n/2i)

In ith step n/2i = 1

so n = 2i
by the property of log i = log2n

T(n) = c + c + … + c + T(1)
i times
= c*i + T(1)
= clgn + T(1)
9
= Θ(lgn)
Iteration Method – Example
Solve using iteration method T(n) = n + 2T(n/2)

T(n/2) = n/2 + 2T(n/4)

T(n) = n + 2T(n/2)
= n + 2(n/2 + 2T(n/4))
= n + n + 4T(n/4)
= n + n + 4(n/4 + 2T(n/8))
= n + n + n + 8T(n/8) +---+ 2iT(n/2i)
= i*n + 2iT(n/2i)
In ith step n/2i = 1
so n = 2i
by the property of i = log2n

= in + 2iT(1)
= nlgn + nT(1) = Θ(nlgn) 10
Iteration Method
Iteration Method cont……
 Recursion-tree method
• A recursion tree models the costs (time) of a
recursive execution of an algorithm.
• The recursion tree method is good for
generating guesses for the substitution
method.
• Convert the recurrence into a tree:
• – Each node represents the cost incurred at
various levels of recursion
• – Sum up the costs of all levels
Solving Recurrences using Recursion Tree Method

• Here while solving recurrences, we divide the problem into

subproblems of equal size.

• For e.g., T(n) = a T(n/b) + f(n) where a > 1 ,b > 1 and f(n) is a given
function .

F(n) is the cost of splitting or combining the sub problems.

T n/b T n/b
 Example 1
W(n) = 2W(n/2) + n2

• Subproblem size at level i is: n/2i

• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/2i  i = lgn
• Cost of the problem at level i = (n/2i)2 No. of nodes at level i =
• 2i
Total cost: i

1
lg n1
2 lg n1 i
n 1 1
W (n)    2 W (1)  n     n  n  
lg n 2 2
  O(n) n
2
i
i 0 2 i 0  2  i 0  2  1 1 2
 O(n)  2n 2
 W(n) = O(n2) 10
 Example 2
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + cn2

• Subproblem size at level i is: n/4i

• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/4i  i = log4n
• Cost of a node at level i = c(n/4i)2
• Number of nodes at level i = 3i  last level has 3log n = nlog 3 nodes
4 4

• Total cost:
T (n) 
log 4 n1
 3 
i cn
2 



 3  cn 2 i
  2 cn  2

 = 16   
log 3 log 3 log 4 3
 i  16  n 4 4

1  n O(n )
0 
i0
1 16
  n 3 11

 Example 3 (simpler proof)
W(n) = W(n/3) + W(2n/3)
+n
• The longest path from the root to a
leaf is: n
 (2/3)n  (2/3)2 n  …  1
• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1
=
(2/3)in  i=log3/2n
•
Cost of the problem at level i = n
•
Total cost:
lg n
W (n)  n  n  ...  n(log
3/ n)  n
2
 O(n lg
3
n) lg 2
27
 W(n) =
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

L2.28
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
T(n)

L2.29
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
T(n/4) T(n/2)

L2.30
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)

L2.31
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

Q(1)

L2.32
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1)

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1)

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2
16
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1)

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
256

…
…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1)

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
256

…
…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) )

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
256

…
…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) )

 Example of recursion tree

Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
256

…
…

…
…

…
…

Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) Q(1) )

n/2i = 1 => n = 2i => i = log2n
Example of recursion tree
+ 2i *T(1)

)i + 2log2n

For simplicity assume it as an infinity series

)i + nlog22

So T(n) = n2 (1 / (1-5/16)) + n

T(n) = n2 (11/16) + n

So T(n) = Q(n2)
 Appendix: geometric series

n 1
1  x
1  x  x2   xn  for x ¹ 1
1 x

2 1
1 x  x   for |x| < 1
1 x
1) T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n

The recursion tree for this recurrence is :

n
n
T n/2 T n/2
n/2 n/2 n

log2 n n/22 n/22 n/22 n/22

:
:
:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
When we add the values across the levels of the recursion tree, we get a
value of n for every level.

We have n + n + n + …… log n times

= n (1 + 1 + 1 + …… log n times)
= n (log2 n)
= Ɵ (n log n)

T(n) = Ɵ (n log n)
II.
Given : T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1
Solution : The recursion tree for the above recurrence is

T(n/2) T(n/2)
II.
Given : T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1
Solution : The recursion tree for the above recurrence is

1 1

T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4)

II.
Given : T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1
Solution : The recursion tree for the above recurrence is

1 1

1 1 2

log n 1 1 1 1 4

:
:
:
 Now we add up the costs over all levels of the recursion tree, to determine
the cost for the entire tree :

We get series like

1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + …… log n times which is a G.P.

[ So, using the formula for sum of terms in a G.P. :

a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + …… + ar n – 1 = a( r n – 1 )
r – 1 ]
= 1 (2log n – 1)
2–1
= n–1
= Ɵ (n – 1) (neglecting the lower order terms)
= Ɵ (n)
 Example (using change the variable method)
Domain transformations can sometimes be used to substitute a function for the
argument of the relation and make it easier to solve.

Consider the following recurrence and find out the upper bound
T(n) = 2∗T(√n) + logn
Sol: So we are given T(n) = 2∗T(√n) + logn
To simplify this let n = 2m (or m = log n)
⇒ T(2m) = 2∗T(√ 2m) + log(2m)
⇒ T(2m) = 2∗T(2m/2) + m
now to simplify more let S(m) = T(2m)
⇒ S(m) = 2∗S(m/2) + m
now we can guess the solution very easily so S(m) = O( m log m)
now changing back from S(m) to T(n) we will obtain
T(n) = T(2m) = S(m) = O (m log m)
so T(n) = O(log n log log n)
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF NON-RECURSIVE
ALGORITHMS

General Plan for Analysis

Decide on parameter n indicating input size
Identify algorithm’s basic operation
Determine worst, average, and best cases for input of size n
Set up a sum for the number of times the basic operation is
executed
Simplify the sum using standard formulas and rules
Example 1: Maximum element

C(n) є Θ(n)
Example 2: Element uniqueness problem

C(n) є Θ(n2)
Example 3: Matrix multiplication

C(n) є Θ(n3)