Chapter 2

Communication
 Networking Devices
• ARPAnet, developed in the 1970s by the Department of Defense, was one of the earliest forms of
networking, using packet switching WAN(wide area network) to connect large computers.
• It laid the technical foundation for the modern internet and eventually expanded to include university
computers.
• In the 1980s, Local Area Networks (LANs) emerged, connecting computers and shared devices within a
single building.
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) consist of multiple LANs connected through public communication
networks and often require passwords and user IDs for access.
• Unlike WANs, the internet is a decentralized network that allows anyone with access to connect to
computers across various networks.
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) connect multiple smaller networks, like LANs, within a single city
or area, such as a university campus.
• WANs cover a much larger geographical area, like a country or continent, connecting multiple LANs or
MANs, often used by multinational companies.
• Benefits of networking: Devices like printers can be shared, reducing costs; software licenses are cheaper on
networks; users can share files, data, and communicate easily; data is centrally backed up and managed by a
network manager.
• Centralized management: A network manager can oversee access rights, restrict external network access, and
maintain reliable, centralized data sources.
• Drawbacks of networking: High initial costs for cabling and servers; managing large networks can be complex and
challenging.
• Risks: Network breakdowns can disrupt all connected devices; networks are vulnerable to malware and hacking,
though firewalls offer some protection.
• Networked Computers form an infrastructure which enables internal and external communications to take place.
The infrastructure includes the following:
• Hardware: LAN cards, routers, switches, wireless routers, cabling.
• Software: operation and management of the network, operation of firewalls, security applications/utilities.
• Services: DSL(Digital Subscriber Line), communication channels, wireless protocols, IP addressing.
• Private networks, typically LANs or intranets, are owned and maintained by a single organization, requiring
restricted access and are responsible for their own equipment, software, and staff management.
• Public networks are owned by communication carriers, used by multiple organizations, and generally don't
require specific passwords for access, though security may be managed within subnetworks.
• LANs are networks confined to a single building or small geographical area, connecting computers and devices like
printers through hubs or switches.
• A LAN often connects to the internet or a WAN via a router or modem.
• WLANs provide wireless network communication over short distances (up to 100 meters) using radio or infrared
signals instead of cables.
• Wireless Access Points (WAPs) are connected to the wired network to enable wireless communication, requiring
multiple WAPs in larger areas for uninterrupted coverage.
• WAPs transmit data between the WLAN and the wired network, and users access the WLAN via wireless LAN
adapters built into devices or as plug-in modules.
• WANs connect computers or networks over long distances, often spanning cities or continents, by joining multiple
LANs through routers or modems.
• WANs typically use public communications networks like telephone lines or satellites, though dedicated or leased
lines can offer greater security and cost efficiency.
• A typical WAN includes end systems and intermediate systems, with significant distances between them,
especially in multinational companies.
• The following is used as a guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:
• WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km, MAN: 1 km to 100 km, LAN: 10 m to 1000 m, PAN: 1 m to 10 m.
• Client Server Model

• Centralized management makes it easier to update, secure, and maintain the network, ensuring consistency across all clients.
• Scalable architecture allows for adding more clients or resources (e.g., servers) without significantly affecting performance.
• High initial setup and maintenance costs due to the need for powerful server hardware and specialized IT staff.
• If the server fails, it can lead to significant downtime as clients rely heavily on the server for resources and services.
• Peer To Peer Model

• Simple and low-cost setup as there is no need for dedicated server hardware or specialized IT staff.
• Greater redundancy and fault tolerance since each peer can act independently, reducing the impact of any single
point of failure.
• Lack of centralized management makes it difficult to enforce security, updates, or data backups across all peers.
• Performance can degrade as the number of peers increases, especially with resource-intensive tasks, since each
peer both consumes and provides resources.
• Thin client: Depends on constant access to a server for processing and functionality; examples include web
browsers, mobile apps, and POS terminals that require server connectivity.
• Thick client: Can operate both online and offline, performing some processing independently; examples include
PCs, laptops, tablets, and standalone software like computer games.
• Thin client hardware: Requires connection to a server to function, with limited processing capabilities on its own.
• Thick client hardware: Has its own storage, RAM, and operating system, allowing it to function with or without a
server connection.
Network Topologies
• Bus Topology

• If the main cable fails, the whole network goes down.

• The performance of the network deteriorates under heavy loading.
• The network is not secure since each packet passes through every node.
• Even if one node fails, the remainder of the network continues to function.
• It is easy to increase the size of the network by adding additional nodes.
• Star topology

• The initial installation costs are high.

• If the central hub/switch fails, then the whole network goes down.
• Data collisions are greatly reduced due to the topology.
• It is a more secure network since security methods can be applied to the
• central node and packets only travel to nodes with the correct address.
• It is easy to improve by simply installing an upgraded hub.
• If one of the connections is broken it only affects one of the nodes.
• Mesh Topology

• Mesh network topologies can be either routing, where nodes direct data via the shortest path and reroute if
necessary, or flooding, where data is sent through all nodes without routing logic, potentially causing network
overload.
• A large amount of cabling is needed, which is expensive and time consuming.
• Set-up and maintenance is difficult and complex.
• It is easy to identify where faults on the network have occurred.
• Any broken links in the network do not affect the other nodes.
• Good privacy and security, since packets travel along dedicated routes.
• Hybrid Topology

• They can handle large volumes of traffic.

• It is easy to identify where a network fault has occurred.
• They are very well suited to the creation of larger networks.
• The main advantages and disadvantages depend on which types of network are used to make up the hybrid
network, but an additional disadvantage is that they can be very complex to install, configure and maintain.
• Public and private cloud computing
• Cloud storage is a method of storing data on multiple offsite servers managed by a hosting company, ensuring
data redundancy and accessibility at all times.
• Public Cloud: Storage environment where the client and provider are separate entities, with data stored on the
provider's servers.
• Private Cloud: Storage within a dedicated environment behind a company firewall, with the client and provider
operating as a single entity.
• Hybrid Cloud: Combines private and public clouds, with sensitive data stored privately and less critical data stored
on a public cloud.
• Data security when using cloud storage
• What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is housed?
• How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or power cuts?
• What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service company? Can they use their
authorization codes to access confidential data for monetary purposes?
• Cloud storage faces risks of data loss or corruption due to hacking or other malicious activities, making it crucial
for users to ensure strong security measures are in place.
• Cloud software allows users to access and use fully managed and tested applications via the internet, with the
ability to work offline and sync data once reconnected, distinguishing it from web-based apps that require
constant internet access.
• Wired and wireless networking
• Bluetooth provides secure, short-range wireless communication by automatically connecting devices within 30
meters, using frequency hopping to minimize interference, and is ideal for low-bandwidth applications.
• Wi-Fi offers faster data transfer rates, better range (up to 100 meters), and enhanced security compared to
Bluetooth, making it suitable for full-scale networks and internet access.
• Both Bluetooth and Wi-Fi utilize electromagnetic radiation, with Bluetooth focusing on personal area networks
(WPAN) and Wi-Fi on broader network connectivity.
• Wired Networking
• There are three main types of cable used in wired networks
• Twisted pair cables

• Twisted pair cables, the most common in LANs, are the cheapest but have the lowest data transfer rate and are
most susceptible to external interference.
• Unshielded types used in residential settings
• Shielded types, which offer some interference protection, used commercially.
• Coaxial Cables

• Coaxial cables, commonly used in MANs and by cable TV companies.

• More expensive than twisted pair cables but provide better data transfer rates, greater transmission capacity, and
superior resistance to interference. They suffer from the highest signal attenuation.
• Fibre Optic Cables

• Fibre optic cables, ideal for long-distance data transmission, offer the highest data transfer rate, minimal signal
attenuation, and strong resistance to interference, but are costly.
• They transmit data using light pulses and have 26,000 times the capacity of twisted pair cables, with single-mode
being optimal for long-distance use and multi-mode suited for shorter distances.
• Wireless networking offers easier expansion, increased mobility, but is prone to external interference, has slower
data transmission rates, and is less secure without encryption; signal strength can also be affected by physical
obstacles.
• Wired networking provides more reliable and stable connections with faster data transfer rates and no dead
spots, but it limits device mobility, involves the cost and installation of cables, and presents potential safety
hazards.
• Other considerations include the need for Wi-Fi or Bluetooth for mobile devices, legal regulations on wireless
frequencies, and the requirement for permission to lay cables underground.
• Bit Streaming
• Bit streaming involves sending a continuous sequence of digital bits over high-speed internet, often requiring data
compression and buffering to ensure smooth playback, especially for large files like videos.
• The buffer temporarily stores data, ensuring that the transmission rate from the server exceeds the playback rate,
with the media player monitoring buffer levels between a minimum and maximum value to maintain stable
playback.
• Real Time or On demand
• On-demand streaming involves pre-encoded digital files stored on a server that are streamed to users as
requested, allowing for playback controls such as pausing, rewinding, and fast-forwarding.
• Real-time streaming captures live events, encodes the video, and streams it directly to users without the ability to
pause, rewind, or fast-forward the footage.
• Hardware requirements of networks
• Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of devices or computers connected to them.

• Function of Hubs in Networking: Hubs connect multiple devices to form a local area network (LAN) by
broadcasting data packets to every computer on the network, but they are inefficient in terms of security and
bandwidth usage.
• Switch Unlike hubs, switches efficiently distribute data packets by checking the destination MAC addresses and
sending data only to the intended devices, making them more secure and bandwidth-efficient.
• Each device on a network has a unique MAC address, and switches use these addresses to direct data packets to
the appropriate devices.
• Repeaters amplify signals over long distances for both wired (analogue and digital) and wireless communication,
helping to overcome attenuation and eliminate dead spots in Wi-Fi zones.
• Repeating hubs have only one collision domain, which can lead to unresolved collisions and reduced network
performance, and they are unmanaged, lacking control over delivery paths and network security.

• Bridges connect separate LANs or segments of a LAN using the same protocol, allowing them to function as a
single network while reducing unnecessary traffic by preventing data packets from flooding larger networks. Can
be wired/wireless
• Routers enable communication between different networks by performing protocol translation, restricting
broadcasts to a LAN, acting as a default gateway, and determining the best route for data to reach its destination.
• Routers connect LANs to WANs, manage data transmission between networks, and work with switches to deliver
data to the correct devices within a network, all while sitting behind a firewall for security.

• Gateway is a network node that serves as an entry and exit point, connecting dissimilar LANs by converting data
between different protocols and facilitating communication between networks, often also functioning as a router,
firewall, or server.
• Modem Function: A modem converts digital data to analogue data for transmission over analogue
communication channels and vice versa, enabling digital devices to communicate over public networks.
• Wireless Modems: Wireless modems modulate data to support multiple simultaneous wireless communications,
connecting to public infrastructure and providing Ethernet output for routers, enabling internet connectivity.
• Combined and Soft-modems: Modems can be integrated with routers into a single device, or take the form of soft-
modems, which use software on a computer to perform modem functions, utilizing the computer's resources
instead of dedicated hardware.
•
• Network interface card (NIC)
• A NIC is a hardware component that enables a device to connect to a network, often containing the device's
unique MAC address assigned during manufacturing.
• Wireless network interface card/controller (WNIC)
• WNICs function like regular NICs but use an antenna to connect devices to networks via microwaves, typically
plugging into a USB port or as an internal circuit.
• Infrastructure vs. Ad Hoc Mode: In infrastructure mode, wireless devices connect through a WAP using the same
security protocols, while in ad hoc mode, devices connect directly without needing a WAP.
• Ethernet:
• Ethernet, standardized as IEEE 802.3, is a protocol for wired LANs where devices (nodes) communicate over a
medium (like Ethernet cables) by transmitting data in frames containing source and destination addresses,
typically MAC addresses.
• When using Ethernet, it is possible for IP addresses to conflict; this could show up as a warning such as that in
Figure below

• IP Address Conflict Resolution: IP address conflicts on a network can occur when devices share the same IP
address, often due to a mix of dynamic and static IP assignments; restarting the router can reassign dynamic IPs
and resolve the issue.
• Collision Risk in Ethernet: In Ethernet networks, collisions can occur when two devices send data simultaneously
on the same channel, causing interference.
• CSMA/CD Protocol: The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol manages
collisions by detecting voltage changes, sending a "jam" signal, and having devices wait a random time before
retransmitting to reduce further collisions.
• Internet
• The internet is a massive network of networks which are made up of various computers and other electronic
devices.
• It stands for interconnected network. The internet makes use of transmission control protocol (TCP)/internet
protocol (IP).
• World Wide Web (WWW)
• This is a collection of multimedia web pages and other documents which are stored on websites.
• http(s) protocols are written using Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML). Uniform resource locators (URLs) specify
the location of all web pages.
• Web resources are accessed by web browsers. The world wide web uses the internet to access information from
servers and other computers.
• Hardware software needed to support internet
• Connecting to the Internet: Requires a device, a telephone or mobile network connection, a router (wired or
wireless), an internet service provider (ISP), and a web browser. Fiber optic cables, offering faster data transfer
rates, have largely replaced copper cables for higher bandwidth and speed.
• Internet Communication: Telephone and video calls can be made via the internet using VoIP technology, which
converts voice into digital packets sent over the network using packet switching.
• Comparison Between Phone call using PSTN and Internet
• The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) uses a standard telephone connected to a line that remains open
during a call, with connections maintained by circuit switching.
• PSTN lines stay active during power cuts as they have their own power source, and modern digitized phones
typically use fiber optic cables, though this method can be inefficient in terms of data usage.

• VoIP Functionality: Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) converts sound into digital packets that are transmitted
over the internet using packet switching, allowing data to be sent via the fastest route without a dedicated line.
• Efficiency and Data Compression: VoIP compresses data to reduce transmission size, making it more efficient than
PSTN, as the internet connection is only active while data (sound/video) is being transmitted, significantly
lowering data usage during calls.
• Mobile Phones and Cellular Networks: Mobile phones use the cellular network with providers acting as ISPs.
Phones have built-in communication software that allows access to the telephone network and internet.
• Satellite Communication: Satellites provide extensive coverage and are crucial for long-distance communication,
with the height of their orbit affecting coverage area. They offer consistent coverage with less signal attenuation
compared to underground or undersea cables.
• IP Addresses and TCP/IP Protocols: The internet operates on TCP/IP protocols, which are sets of rules that must
be agreed upon by both senders and receivers. These protocols are structured in TCP layers.
• IPv4 Addressing: IPv4 is the most common internet addressing system, based on 32-bit addresses, which are
divided into four 8-bit groups (e.g., 254.0.128.77), providing a total of 4,294,967,296 possible addresses.
• NetID and HostID: IPv4 addresses are split into a network identifier (netID) and a host identifier (hostID). The
netID is used for routing the transmission to the correct network, while the hostID is used by the receiving
network to identify the specific device.
• IPv4 Address Limitations: The IPv4 system has an insufficient address range, leading to inefficiencies, such as
underutilized host IDs in medium-sized networks, where allocated addresses may exceed actual needs, resulting
in wasted resources.
• CIDR Flexibility in IPv4: Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) enhances the flexibility of the IPv4 system by
allowing variable-length net IDs and host IDs, using a suffix such as 192.30.250.00/18, which means 18 bits will be
used for the net ID and the last 14 bits will be used for the host ID (rather than the normal 24 bits and 8 bits for a
class C network).
• IPv6 Addressing: IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for a vastly larger and more complex addressing structure
compared to IPv4. These addresses are written in hexadecimal notation and divided into 16-bit chunks, separated
by colons (e.g., A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB).
• IPv6 Advantages: IPv6 eliminates the need for Network Address Translation (NAT), reduces the risk of private IP
address collisions, includes built-in authentication, and supports more efficient routing, making it better suited for
the growing internet.
• Zero Compression in IPv6: IPv6 addresses can be shortened using zero compression, where consecutive sections
of zeros are replaced with "::".
• Single Use Limitation: Zero compression can only be applied once in an IPv6 address to avoid ambiguity, as using
it multiple times would make it unclear how many zeros were replaced in each section.
• Example of Proper Use: For example, 900B:3E4A:AE41:0000:0000:AFF7:DD44can be correctly compressed to
900B:3E4A:AE41::AFF7:DD44, but not in multiple places within the address.
• With the section 0000:0000 replaced by ::
• Subnetting Overview: Subnetting divides a larger LAN into smaller networks, reducing traffic and simplifying
network management. It involves partitioning the IP address space (netID and hostID) to create multiple subnets
within a single network.
• Example: In a university network with a netID of 192.200.20 and a hostID range from 00000001 to 1111110,
subnetting allows for multiple smaller networks within the university, each with its own range of IP addresses.

• So, for example, the devices in the Admin and finance department might have hostIDs of 1, 8, 240, 35, 67, 88,
134, and so on, with similar spreads for the other seven departments.
• It would be beneficial to organise the netIDs and hostIDs so that the network was a lot less complex in nature.
• With sub-netting, the hostID is split as follows: 000 00000, where the first 3 bits are netID expansion and the last 5
• Private IP addresses and public IP addresses
• Private IP addresses are reserved for internal use behind a router or other NAT device.

• Private IP addresses enable devices within a network to communicate without using public IP address space, but
they cannot be accessed directly from the internet.
• Public IP addresses, assigned by an ISP, identify a device's location and allow it to be accessed from the internet;
they are used by DNS servers, network routers, and directly-controlled computers.
• URL’S: Web browsers allow users to access and display web pages by interpreting HTML and using URLs, which are
typically represented in the format: protocol://website address/path/filename.
• The website address includes the domain host (e.g., www), domain name, domain type (e.g., .com, .org), and
sometimes a country code, with the path leading to specific web pages or files.
• For example: http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/computerscience
• Domain name service (DNS)
• The Domain Name Service (DNS) provides domain names for internet hosts and helps find the IP addresses
associated with those domain names.
• DNS converts host names (e.g., www.hoddereducation.co.uk) into IP addresses (e.g., 107.162.140.19), making it
easier for users to access websites without memorizing IP addresses.

• When a user types a URL into their web browser, the browser requests the IP address from a DNS server, which
may query other DNS servers if the address is not initially found.
• Once the correct IP address is identified, it is sent back to the user's computer, which then establishes
communication with the website server, downloads the pages, and displays the content on the screen.