The Physical Layer

Chapter 2
2.1 - 2.4

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Maximum data rate of a channel

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fourier Analysis
• We model the behavior of variation of voltage
or current with mathematical functions
• Fourier series is used

• Function reconstructed with

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (1)

A binary signal and its root-mean-square

Fourier amplitudes.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (4)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (5)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (6)

Relation between data rate and

harmonics for our example.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

• Nyquist’s theorem

• Shannon’s formula for capacity of a noisy channel

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Guided Transmission Media

• Magnetic media
• Twisted pairs
• Coaxial cable
• Power lines
• Fiber optics

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Magnetic Media

• Write data onto magnetic media

• Disks
• Tapes
• Data transmission speed
• Never underestimate the bandwidth of
a station wagon full of tapes hurtling
down the highway.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Twisted Pairs

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Power Lines

A network that uses household electrical wiring.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fiber Optics (1)

Three examples of a light ray from inside a

silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary
at different angles.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fiber Optics (2)

Light trapped by total internal reflection.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Transmission of Light Through Fiber

Attenuation of light through fiber

in the infrared region
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fiber Cables (1)

Views of a fiber cable

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fiber Cables (2)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes

and LEDs as light sources
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Wireless Transmission

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared Transmission
• Light Transmission

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

The electromagnetic spectrum and

its uses for communication
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (2)

Spread spectrum and ultra-wideband

(UWB) communication

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Radio Transmission (1)

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature
of the earth
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Radio Transmission (2)

In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
The Politics of the Electromagnetic
Spectrum

ISM and U-NII bands used in the

United States by wireless devices

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Light Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication

systems. A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Communication Satellites

• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Satellites Versus Fiber

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Communication Satellites

Communication satellites, some properties, including: altitude

above earth, round-trip delay time, number of satellites for
global coverage.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Geostationary Satellites (1)

The principal satellite bands

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Geostationary Satellites (2)

VSATs using a hub.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (1)

The Iridium satellites form six necklaces

around the earth.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (2)

Relaying in space.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (3)

Relaying on the ground

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011