ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
THE SYLLABUS
• Introduction: Overview and Historical Perspective, Turing
Test, Physical Symbol Systems and the scope of the
Symbolic AI, agents.
• State Space Search: Depth First Search, Breadth First
Search, DFID.
• Heuristic Search: Best First Search, Hill Climbing, Beam
Search, Tabu Search.
• Randomized Search: Simulated Annealing, Genetic
Algorithms, Ant Colony Optimization.
History of Phylosophy of AI:
• Book - 1
• AI – “The Very Idea” –
• by – John Haugeland

• Book – 2
• “Machines who think”
• by – Pamela McCorduck
TEXTBOOKS:
• Getting started with Artificial Intelligence.
• Tom Markiewicz, Josh Zheng

• Artificial Intelligence: A modern Approach.

• Stuart. J.Russell , Peter Norwig.
Definition of AI:

• AI is the study of techniques for solving exponentially hard

problems in polynomial time by exploiting knowledge about
the problem domain – Elaine Rich.

• AI is the study of the mental faculties using the

computational models - Eugene Charniak and Drew
McDermott.

• We call programs intelligent if they exhibit behaviors that

would be regarded intelligent if they were exhibited by
Human Beings – Herbert Somin.
Machines with minds of their own:
• This is not a science fiction, but real science, based on a
Theoretical Conception as deep as it is daring. We are at
root as Computers ourselves.

• The idea behind is – Thinking and computing are

radically the same.
Fundamental Questions:
• What is Intelligence?
• What is Thinking?
• What is a Machine?
• Is Computer a Machine?
• Can a Machine think?
• If Yes Are we Machines?
The Raging Debates over Thinking
Machines:
• Intelligence depends on Unconscious instincts that can
never be captured in formal rules.

• There is something (Quantum Mechanical) going on in

our brains that current day Physics cannot explain.

• Our Arguments are based on Emotions, Intuition,

Consciousness, Ethics etc.
Alan Turing’s Imitation Game (1912-
1954)
• The question machine can think itself is “Too meaningless”
• Turing Test – A test called Imitation Game.
• “ I believe that in about fifty years’ time it will be possible
to program computers with a storage capacity of about 109
to make them play the Imitation Game so well that an
average interrogator will not have more than 70 percent
chance to make the right identification after five minutes
of Questioning…. I believe that at the end of the century
the use of the words and generated educated opinion will
have altered so much that one will be able to speak of
machines thinking without expecting to be contradicted.”
Willing Suspension in Disbelief:
• The fact that a man-made artifact could respond to Human input
easily leads humans to make a leap of faith and conclude that it
responds intelligently and knowledgeably.
• In Hellenic Egypt people believed that statues that moved and
gestured has a sort of a soul that could represent a god or a dead
person and communicate through the priest.
• In medieval times Europe the art of making clocks decorated with
animated figures was very popular and added much credence to
the belief that learned men kept robots. To most people there
could be a little difference between a human figure nodded,
bowed, marched, or stuck a going at a precise and predictable
moment, and a human figure that answered knotty questions and
foretold the future.
What we see is not what we
really is:
• It is the rotating Earth that creates the
illusion of The Sun, The Moon and The
Stars moving in the sky. (On the
revolutions of the Celestial Spheres).
• Nicolaus Copernicus, 1580, Turn Old
Town City Hall.
• Perception is an Internal Process:
• “The taste, Odors, Colors and so on are
no more than mere names, As the
objects are located, they are
concerned, and they reside in the
consciousness. If the living creature is
removed all these qualities would be
wiped away and annihilated.
Galileo:
• Galileo showed that geometry could be used to represent the
reason about motion.
• Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe …. It is
written in the language of mathematics. The characters are
Triangles, Circles and other geometric figures.
• Thinking is the manipulation of Symbols.
• Mathematics is the sense that everything is made up of
particles. Our sensing of smell, taste are reacted to those
particles.
• The question forever is how the symbols are connected to the
ideas called image of reality.
Reasoning = Computation.
• Hobbes was influenced by Galileo.

• Geometry represents Motion – Thinking could be done

by manipulation of Mental Symbols.

• Hobbes are the collection of many things which are

added together at the same time or to know the
remainder when one-thing has been taken from other.
Non-Standard (Non-Classical )
Logistics
• Non-Classical logics (and sometimes alternative logics)
are formal systems that differ in a significant way from
standard logical systems such as propositional and
predicate logic.
• The aim of these departures is to make it possible to
construct different models of logic sequence and logical
truth.
• - Standard Logics: Propositional and Predicate logics.
• Non-Standard Logics: Computability logic, Many valued
logic (Three-valued logic and Fuzzy Logic),
Institutionistic Logic (Part of Demorgan’s laws), Linear
Logic, Modal Logic, Para-consistent Logic, Quantum
• Computability logic (CoL) is a research program and mathematical
framework for redeveloping logic as a systematic formal theory
of computability, as opposed to classical logic, which is a formal
theory of truth. It was introduced and so named by Giorgi
Japaridze in 2003.
• Many-valued logic (also multi- or multiple-valued logic) is
a propositional calculus in which there are more than two truth
values. Traditionally, in Aristotle's logical calculus, there were only
two possible values (i.e., "true" and "false") for any proposition.
Classical two-valued logic may be extended to n-valued
logic for n greater than 2. Those most popular in the literature
are three-valued (e.g., Łukasiewicz's and Kleene's, which accept the
values "true", "false", and "unknown"), four-valued, nine-valued,
the finite-valued (finitely-many valued) with more than three values,
and the infinite-valued (infinitely-many-valued), such as fuzzy
logic and probability logic.
• Classical logic is a 19th and 20th-century innovation.
The name does not refer to classical antiquity, which
used the term logic of Aristotle. Classical logic was the
reconciliation of Aristotle's logic, which dominated most
of the last 2000 years, with the propositional Stoic logic.
• Modal logic differs from other kinds of logic in that
it uses modal operators such as and . The former is
conventionally read aloud as "necessarily",and can be
used to represent notions such as moral or legal
obligation, knowledge, historical inevitability, among
others.
• quantum logic describe observables using a syntax that
resembles classical logic. However, unlike classical
logic, the distributive law a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
fails when dealing with non-commuting observables,
such as position and momentum.
Uncertain and Probabilistic
Reasoning:
• -Agents may need to handle uncertainty, whether due
to partial observability, non-deterministic, or a
combination of the two. An agent may never know for
certain what state it’s in or where it will end up after a
sequence of operations.
• -It is difficult to reason correctly when the information is
available is uncertain. Reasoning under uncertainty is
also known as Probabilistic Reasoning.
• -Methods we discuss probabilistic reasoning are in the
context of a medical diagnosis or prognosis.
 BAYES
THEOREM:
BNF – Backus Naur Form