Computer

Communication &
Networks
FAWAD NASEER
What is internet ?

Internet is a
Network of
Networks
Basic Building Block: Nodes, Links

 Simplest example: 2 nodes

• Sender changes voltage,
frequency, …
• Or maybe it is optical or wireless?
 But receiver must “understand”
sender – protocols
• More on this later
 Okay… what about more nodes?
• How about a million?
History

 Networks Have Been Around for a Long time!

 Courier: physical transport of the message
• Messenger pigeons, pony express, FedEx
• Telegraph: message is transmitted across a
network using signals – much faster!
• Drums, beacons, mirrors, smoke, flags,
• Light, electricity
Electric Telegraph Networks
Bell’s Telephone
Links and Switches in
Early Telephone Networks
And Some More Examples …

 • Television network
• Over the air
• Cable TV
• Satellite
• Radio broadcast
• Many private networks
• E.g., for first responders, military, ..
What Do All These Networks
Have in Common?
 They are designed for a single application!

 How about the Internet??????????????????????????????????

Internet

 Its for Connectivity of different larger networks

What about the Internet

 An inter-net: a network of
networks.
• Networks are connected using routers and other devices, e.g.,
for security, accounting, …
• Networks can use diverse technologies
• Typically managed by different organization
 The Internet: the interconnected set of networks of the
Internet
Service Providers (ISPs)
• About ~23,000 “transit” ISPs make up the Internet
• Many more “edge” networks
What is the
Objective of the Internet?
 • Enable communication between diverse applications on
diverse devices …
• Web, peer-to-peer, video streaming, distributed processing,
transactions, map-reduce, video and audio conferencing, …
• … over very diverse infrastructures
• The “Internet”, WiFi and cellular, data center networks,
corporate
networks, dedicated private networks, …
• In contrast: previous networks were special purpose and
fairly homogeneous in terms of technology
• The Internet is an “engineered system”
• Many design choices – the focus of the course!
• Must understand the requirements – but they change over
time!
Network Devices
Networks Juggle Many Goals

 Support rich set of applications

 Efficiency – resource use, cost
 The “ilities”:
• Evolvability
• Managability
• Security (securability, if you must)
• Scalability
• Ease of:
• Deployment, managability
• Creating useful applications
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view 1-16

mobile network
 Internet: “network of networks”
 Interconnected ISPs global ISP
 Interconnected layer-2 and layer-3
networks
home
 protocols control sending, network
receiving of msgs regional ISP

 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11

 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force
institutional
network

Introductio
n
What’s a protocol? 1-17

human protocols: network protocols:

Introduction
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
humans
 “I have a question”
 all communication
 introductions activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific msgs sent
protocols define
… specific actions
taken when msgs format, order of
received, or other msgs sent and
events received among
network entities,
and actions taken on
What’s a protocol? 1-18

a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Introduction
Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human
protocols?
A closer look at network 1-19

structure:
 network edge: mobile network

Introduction
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

home
 access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
links
 network core:
 interconnected
routers institutional
 network of network

networks
Access networks and physical
media
1-20

Q: How to connect end systems to

Introduction
edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
 Important: How sharing is
done.
Access net: digital subscriber
1-21
line (DSL)
central office

Introduction
telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically <
1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically
< 10 Mbps)
 Access net: cable
network 1-22

cable headend

Introduction
…

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted

in different frequency bands
Access net: cable
network 1-23

cable headend

Introduction
…

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream
transmission rate, 2 Mbps upstream
transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP
router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 Access net: home
network 1-24

wireless

Introduction
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Enterprise access networks 1-25

(Ethernet)

Introduction
institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch
Wireless access networks
1-26

 shared wireless access network connects end system to router

Introduction
 via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet
Host: sends packets of data 1-27

host sending function:

 takes application message
 breaks into smaller two packets,
chunks, known as packets, L bits each
of length L bits
 transmits packet into
access network at 2 1
transmission rate R
R: link transmission rate
 link transmission rate, aka link host
capacity, aka link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Physical media 1-28

Introduction
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
 physical link: what lies
 two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver  Category 5: 100
Mbps, 1 Gpbs
 guided media: Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid  Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio
Physical media: coax, fiber
1-29

coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:

Introduction
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 high-speed operation:
 bidirectional  high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 broadband: 100’s Gpbs transmission
 multiple channels on rate)
cable  low error rate:

 repeaters spaced far
HFC
apart
 immune to
electromagnetic noise
Physical media: radio
1-30

 signal carried in radio link types:

Introduction
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps
spectrum channels
 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 bidirectional  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 propagation  3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
environment effects:  satellite
 reflection  Kbps to 45Mbps channel
(or multiple smaller
 obstruction by objects channels)
 interference  270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
The network core 1-31

Introduction
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source to
destination
 each packet transmitted at
full link capacity
Packet-switching: store-and- 1-32

forward

Introduction
L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R  L = 7.5 Mbits
bps  R = 1.5 Mbps
 store and forward:  one-hop transmission
entire packet must delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R
arrive at router before
(assuming zero more on delay shortly …
it can be transmitted
propagation delay)
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss 1-33

Introduction
R = 100 Mb/s
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Two key network-core functions 4-34

routing: determines forwarding: move packets

Network Layer
source-destination route from router’s input to
taken by packets appropriate router output
 routing algorithms

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
1
011

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Alternative core: circuit 1-35

switching
end-end resources allocated to,

Introduction
reserved for “call” between source &
dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks
Circuit switching: FDM versus
TDM 1-36

Example:

Introduction
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
History
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

 When did it start?

Packet switching versus circuit
switching
1-38

packet switching allows more users to use network!

Introduction
example:
 1 Mb/s link
N

…..
 each user: users
• 100 kb/s when “active” 1 Mbps link
• active 10% of time

 circuit-switching:

 10 users
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
 packet switching: Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
 with 35 users, probability
> 10 active at same time
is out
* Check lessthethan .0004 *exercises for more examples
online interactive
Packet switching versus circuit
switching 1-39

is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

Introduction
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and
loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-
switching)?
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to
each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access

…
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit
ISP? Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement.
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access access

access
… net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google,
Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their own network, to
bring services, content close to end users
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
 Internet structure: network of
networks
1-48

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

Introduction
IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
1-49

Introduction
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …

…
…

…
to/from customers
Optimizing Performance

 Intuitively: lots of bandwidth!

• But not really: there is no free bandwidth
 But there is more to it:
• Latency is often more critical!
• For voice and video – can I offer guarantees?
• Can I beat the speed of light?
 Hint: this can make you rich
• Why did we use peer to peer networks?
• And why did they (mostly) go away?
IP Everywhere

 • Using IP technology has become attractive

Cheap commodity hardware, lots of tools, people trained in the
technology, end-to-end support, …
 The (public) Internet: our focus
• How do you optimize “the web”: CDNs, caching, …
 Data centers: very special requirements
• Map-reduce, 3-tier business apps, load balancing,
 IP TV, voice/video conferencing:
• Very high QoE expectations
 Wireless and mobile apps
• For many users, primary way of accessing Internet
 Residential networking
Networking 52

Protocol
A set of rules that defines how data is formatted and
processed on a network
File server
A computer dedicated to storing and managing files for
network users
Web server
A computer dedicated to responding to requests for web pages
P2P model
A decentralized approach that shares resources and
responsibilities among many “peer” computers
Types of Networks 53

Local-area network (LAN)

A network that connects a relatively small number
of machines in a relatively close geographical area
Ring topology connects all nodes in a closed loop on
which messages travel in one direction
Star topology centers around one node to which all
others are connected and through which all messages
are sent
Bus topology nodes are connected to a single
communication line that carries messages in both
directions
Types of Networks

Ethernet
The industry standard bus technology
for local-area networks
Types of Networks 55

Wide-area network (WAN)

A network that connects local-area networks over a
potentially large geographic distance
Metropolitan-area network (MAN)
The communication infrastructures that have been
developed in and around large cities
Gateway
One particular set up to handle all communication
going between that LAN and other networks
Types of Networks 56
Types of Networks 57

Internet
A wide area network that spans the planet

So, who owns the Internet?

Internet Connections 58

Wireless network
A network in which devices communicate
with other nodes through a wireless access
point
Bluetooth
A technology used for wireless
communication over short distances
Internet Connections 59

Internet backbone
A set of high-speed networks that carry
Internet traffic, provided by companies such
as AT&T, Verizon, GTE, British Telecom, and
IBM
Internet service provider (ISP)
An organization providing access to the
Internet
Internet Connections 60

Various technologies available to connect a

home computer to the Internet
Phone modem converts computer data into an
analog audio signal for transfer over a telephone
line, and then a modem at the destination converts
it back again into data
Digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular
copper phone lines to transfer digital data to and
from the phone company’s central office
Cable modem uses the same line that your cable
TV signals come in on to transfer the data back and
forth
Internet Connections 61

Broadband
A connection in which transfer speeds are faster
than 768 kilobits per second
 DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
 The speed for downloads (getting data from the
Internet to your home computer) may not be the
same as uploads (sending data from your home
computer to the Internet)
Packet Switching
Packet
A unit of data sent across a network
Router
A network device that directs a packet between
networks toward its final destination
Packet switching
Messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered
packets; packets are individually routed to their
destination, then reassembled
Packet Switching 63

Take a message, break it into three packets, and

simulate this process
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS 2.
64
We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process
of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available
from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
 2.
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
65
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL 2.
Established in 1947, the International 66
Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
 2.
67

Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
 2.
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model 68
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model: 7

Layers
Summary
OSI Layer Detail
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION LAYERS
OSI Model

OSI: A Layered Network

Model
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in
the protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s
software or hardware on other computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with
the flow of data from end to end through the
network.
The upper four layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before
network transit.
OSI Model

Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission
of information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from

one system to another on a physical
communication medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical,
functional and procedural - aspects for
physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels,
timing of voltage changes, physical data
rates, maximum transmission distances,
physical connectors, and other similar
attributes are defined by physical layer
specifications.
OSI Model

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable
communication over the physical layer
interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an
acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast
communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
communication.
OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through
the network.

Defines the most optimum path the packet

should take from the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint
can be identified.
Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between
heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).
The network layer also defines how to fragment
a packet into smaller packets to accommodate
different media.
OSI Model

Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable
mechanism for the exchange of data
between two processes in different
computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered

error free.
Ensures that data units are delivered in
sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication
of data units.
Provides connectionless or connection
oriented service.
Provides for the connection management.
OSI Model

Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling
the dialogue between the two end systems. It
defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.

This layer requests for a logical connection to be

established on an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the
connection.
This layer provides services like dialogue discipline
which can be full duplex or half duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing
mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs
between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted
from the last checkpoint.
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in
which the data is to be exchanged between
the two communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data
encryption (cryptography).
OSI Model

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application
programs and is the highest level of OSI
model.
Application layer contains management
functions to support distributed
applications.
Examples of application layer are
applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail, remote login etc.
 2.
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
80
 2.
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
81
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL 2.
82
In this section we briefly describe the functions
of each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
 2.
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
83
 2.
84

Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 2.
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
85
 2.
86

Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 2.
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
87
 2.
Figure 2.8 Network layer
88
 2.
89

Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 2.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
90
Figure 2.10 Transport layer 2.
91
 2.
92

Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message 2.
93
 2.
Figure 2.12 Session layer 94
 2.
95

Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
 2.
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
96
 2.
97

Note

The presentation layer is responsible for

translation, compression, and encryption.
 2.
Figure 2.14 Application layer
98
 2.
99

Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 2.
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
10
0
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers 2.
10
1
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE 2.
10
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not 2
exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP Model

OSI & TCP/IP Models

TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)
Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
 2-5 ADDRESSING 2.
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Four levels of addresses are used in an internet 6
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
 2.
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
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 2.
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
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 Example 2.1 2.
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In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10
sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a link
(bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the
computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical
address 87 is the receiver.
 2.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
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 Example 2.2 2.
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Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical

address.
 Example 2.3 2.
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Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with
two routers connecting three LANs. Each
device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses. Each router,
however, is connected to three networks (only
two are shown in the figure). So each router
has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
 2.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
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 Example 2.4 2.
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Figure 2.21 shows two computers
communicating via the Internet. The sending
computer is running three processes at this
time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes
at this time with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending computer needs to
communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical
and port addresses remain the same from the
source to destination.
 2.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
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 2.
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Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to

hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5 2.
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A port address is a 16-bit address represented
by one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
Port Address & OSI Layer

 TCP or UDP ports are defined in either layer 4 of the OSI model or
layer 3 of the TCP/IP model, both are defined as the 'transport'
layer.
 OSI layer 5 'session layer' uses the ports defined in layer 4 to
create sockets and sessions between communicating
devices/programs/etc