GAMMA CAMERA

GAMMA CAMERA
The gamma camera, also known as the Anger scintillation
camera, named after its inventor, Hal Anger is a widely used
imaging device.

COMPONENTS OF A GAMMA CAMERA

– Collimator
– Large area NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal
– Light guide
– Array of PM tubes
Collimator:

• Consists of lead plate with large number of

holes.
• To define direction of γ rays.
• By controlling which γ rays are accepted, the
collimator forms a projected image of the γ ray
distribution on the surface of NaI(Tl) crystal.
• NaI(Tl) crystal is viewed by an array of PM
tubes.

Plastic light guides:

• Between detector crystal and PM tubes to

increase the light collection efficiency by
channelling scintillation light away from the
gaps between the PM tubes.
• Signals from PM tubes are fed to electronic or digital position logic
circuits, which determine the X-Y location of each scintillation event.

• Output of each PM tube is digitized by an analog to digital converter

(ADC) in modern digital gamma cameras.

• When the pulse amplitude of an event falls within the selected energy
window, it is accepted and the X & Y values are binned into a discrete
2 dimensional array of image elements, or pixels. An image is formed
from a histogram of the number of events at each possible X-Y
location.

• Images are displayed on a computer monitor, where brightness and

contrast may be manipulated.
• Gamma cameras can be used for static imaging
studies: image of an unchanging radionuclide distribution
can be recorded over an extended imaging time. Single
image of whole body can be obtained by moving either
the bed or the camera.

• Also used for dynamic imaging studies: changes in the

RN distribution can be observed. Allows physiological
information to be obtained, such as rate of tracer uptake
or clearance of tracer from an organ of interest. It can
also be synchronised to ECG to obtain gated images.
 Detector System and Electronics

• Single large area, rectangular NaI(Tl)

detector crystal; thickness of 6 to
12.5 mm, size up to 60 x 40 cm.
• Crystal is surrounded by a highly
reflective material (TiO2)- to
maximize light output and
hermitically sealed inside thin
aluminium casing to protect it from
moisture.
• Optical glass window on the back
surface of the casing to permits the
scintillation light to reach the PM
tubes.
• An array of PM tubes is coupled optically
to the back face of the crystal with a
silicone based adhesive or grease. Round
PM tubes are arranged in a hexagonal
pattern to maximize the area of the
NaI(Tl) crystal that is covered.
• Diameter of PM tube: 5 cm
• Most gamma cameras employ 30-100 PM
tubes.
• Encased in a thin magnetic shield to
prevent changes in the gain caused by
changes in the orientation of the gamma
camera relative to Earth’smagnetic field.
• The detector crystal and PM tube array
are enclosed in a light tight, lead-lined
protective housing.
 X-,Y-Positioning circuit

• Each pulse arising out of the γ ray

interaction in the NaI(Tl) detector is
projected at an X,Y location on the image
corresponding the X,Y location of the point
of interaction of the γ ray. This is
accomplished by an X,Y positioning circuit.

• All PM tubes are connected through

resistors to four output leads representing
four directional signals, X+,X-,Y+, and Y-.
From each PM Tube, the signal is split into
these 4 output lines.
• The fraction of the PM tube current that goes to each output
line is determined by the value of the resistors (R) that are
used.A separate circuit sums the outputs of all the PM tubes
to form the Z signal (used for pulse height analysis).

• The X+,X-,Y+, and Y- signals are combined to obtain X-position

and Y position signals.
X = (X+-X-)/(X++X-)
Y = (Y+-Y-)/(Y++Y-)
• The possible range of X and Y values is from -1 to +1.

• The resistor values are chosen such that the calculated

X and Y position signals vary linearly with distance in
the X and Y direction, ie, (-1,-1) in the bottom left hand
corner to (+1,+1) at the top right hand corner of the
camera face.

• The X and Y pulses are then projected on a display

monitor to depict the X,Y coordinate of the point of γ ray
interaction in the crystal.
 Pulse-Height Analyzer

• After the Z pulses are formed, the PHA analyses their

amplitude and selects only those of desired energy
by the use appropriate peak and window settings.
• It is used to discriminate against γ rays that have
been scattered and lost their positional information.
• By choosing a narrow pulse height analyser window
that is centered on the photopeak, only γ rays that
undergo no scatter or small-angle scatter will be
accepted.
• Two different methods to select photopeak events:
1. Using simple energy discrimination on the Z-signal.
However the light collection efficiency and PM tube gains is
not uniform in NaI(Tl) crystal, ie, it varies with position. If a
simple discriminator is level is applied across the whole
detector, the window must be widened to accommodate the
fluctuations in photopeak position, thus accepting more
scatter.
2. For digital cameras, the photopeak positions and appropriate
discriminator level settings are computed and stored for
many different locations across the detector. When an event
is detected, the X, Y values are calculated, and look-up table
is used to find the appropriate discriminator levels for that
location. If the event amplitude Z falls within the pulse-height
analyser settings, the event is accepted
 Collimators

• It is attached to the face of the detector to limit the field of

view so that γ radiations from outside the field of view are
prevented from reaching the detector.
• Made of materials with high atomic number and stopping
power, such as tungsten and lead.
• Four types:
– Pinhole
– Parallel-hole
– Diverging
– Converging
 Pinhole Collimator

• Consists of a small pinhole aperture in a piece of heavy metal.

• Aperture is located 20-25 cm from the detector.
• Size of pinhole: typically few millimetres in diameter.
• γ rays passing through the pinhole project an inverted image of the
source distribution onto the detector.
• The image is magnified when the distance b from the source to the
pinhole is smaller than the collimator cone length f; it is minified when
the source distribution is farther away.
I/O = f / b.
• Image size changes with object to pinhole distance. So a pinhole
collimator projects a somewhat distorted image of 3D objects,
because source planes at different distances from the collimator are
magnified by different amounts.
• The size of the imaged area also changes with distance from
pinhole collimator. If the detector diameter is D and the
magnification factor is I/O, the diameter of the image area
projected onto the detector, D’, is
D’ = D
I/O
Thus a large magnification factor, obtained at close
source-to-collimator distance results in a small imaged area.
• Used for magnification of small organs and for small-animal
imaging.
• Multi-pinhole collimator: array of multiple pinholes, typically
7, arranged in a hexagonal pattern. Used in the past for
tomographic imaging.
 Parallel Hole Collimator
• Parallel holes are drilled or cast in lead or are shaped
from lead foils. The lead walls between the holes are
called collimator septa. Septal thickness is chosen to
prevent γ rays from crossing from one hole to the
next.
• It projects a γ rays image of the same size.
• Slant hole collimator: variation of parallel-hole
collimator, all holes are paralleled to each other but
angled, ~ 250.
• Because it views the source distribution from an angle
rather than directly, it can be positioned closer to the
patient for better image detail in some studies (eg: left
anterior oblique cardiac views).
 Diverging collimator
• Holes that diverge from the detector face.
• The holes diverge from a point ~ 40-50 cm behind the collimator.
• Projects a minified, inverted image.
• Degree of minification depends on the distance f from the front of
the collimator to the convergence point, the distance b from the
front of the collimator to the source, and the collimator thickness
t
I/O = (f – t) / (f + b)
• Decreases the size of the image on the detector and increases
the diameter of the imaged area, by ~1/3rd .
• Image size changes with distance; distorted image.
• Used on cameras with smaller detectors to permit imaging of
large organs such as liver or lungs.
 Converging collimator

• Holes that converge to a point 40-50 cm in front of

the collimator.
• Objects between the collimator face and
convergence point: magnified, noninverted image.
I/O = (f + t) / (f – b)
• Magnification depends on distance; Image distortion.
• Used primarily with cameras having large area
detectors to permit full use of available detector area
for imaging of small organs.
• Objects between the convergence point and twice
the convergence length of the of the collimator:
magnified, inverted image.
• Beyond this point: minified inverted image
 Event detection in a gamma camera

• Four types of event that may be

detected by a gamma camera of
which only one provides
positional information.
A. Valid event: a γ ray is emitted
parallel to the collimator holes,
passes through a hole and
interacts photoelectrically in the
NaI(Tl) crystal, depositing all of
its energy at a single location.
B. Detector scatter event:
• A γ ray is emitted parallel to the collimator
holes, passes through a hole and interacts
by Compton scattering in the NaI(Tl) crystal.
• The scattered γ ray can either interact a
second time in the detector, in which case
the full energy is deposited. So energy
discrimination cannot be used to reject the
event, and the event will be mispositioned
between the two interaction locations.
• It may also escape the detector, in which
case only part of the γ ray energy is
deposited. It may be rejected because it
does not satisfy the event energy criteria
established by the upper- and lower- level
discriminators.
C. Object scatter event
• γ ray is scattered within the body, then
passes through a collimator and then is
detected.
• The γ ray loses energy during scattering
and will therefore produces a smaller
signal in the detector.
• Some events will be rejected by energy
discrimination, but if the angle of scatter
is small (<45o) the energy loss is small
and the event may be accepted. In this
case the event is mispositioned away
from the original site of emission. These
events lead to a low spatial frequency
background in the image that results in
loss of contrast.
D. Septal penetration
• A γ ray is emitted toward the
collimator, but not parallel to it.
• Because of incomplete penetration
by the collimator walls, the γ ray will
reach the NaI(Tl) crystal and interact
with it.
• Leads to blurring, because all events
are considered to have come from a
direction perpendicular to the
collimator face.
 Types of gamma cameras and their clinical uses

• Single Headed system:

– Consists of a gamma camera
detector mounted on a gantry that
allows the camera head to be
positioned in a flexible way over
different regions of the patient’s
body.
– Moving bed for whole body scan
– Head is mounted on a rotating
gantry, allowing it to take multiple
views around the patient (for
tomographic imaging).
 Dual Headed Gamma Cameras
• Two gamma camera
heads are mounted onto
the gantry.
• They are positioned at a
variety of locations
• Advantage: 2 different
views of the patient can be
acquired at the same time
 Speciality Gamma Cameras

• Used for specific imaging tasks, eg, for small-

organ imaging (heart, breast, and thyroid) and
mobile systems for use on patients who are too
sick to be moved.
• Detector: 10 x 10 cm2 to 20 x 20 cm2.
• Different detectors technologies:
– NaI(Tl)/PM tube systems
– Pixellated NaI(Tl) or CsI(Tl) scintillator arrays
– CsI(Tl) scintillator arrays with read-out by
silicon photodiode arrays
– CZT
• Small animal imaging to monitor radiotracers in
vivo.
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