Java™ How to Program, 9/e

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 Data structures
 Collections of related data items.
 Discussed in depth in Chapters 20–22.
 Arrays
 Data structures consisting of related data items of the same type.
 Make it convenient to process related groups of values.
 Remain the same length once they are created.
 Enhanced for statement for iterating over an array or
collection of data items.
 Variable-length argument lists
 Can create methods are with varying numbers of arguments.
 Process command-line arguments in method main.

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 Common array manipulations with static methods
of class Arrays from the java.util package.
 ArrayList collection
 Similar to arrays
 Dynamic resizing
 They automatically increase their size at execution time to
accommodate additional elements

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 Array
 Group of variables (called elements) containing values of the same
type.
 Arrays are objects so they are reference types.
 Elements can be either primitive or reference types.
 Refer to a particular element in an array
 Use the element’s index.
 Array-access expression—the name of the array followed by the
index of the particular element in square brackets, [].
 The first element in every array has index zero.
 The highest index in an array is one less than the number of
elements in the array.
 Array names follow the same conventions as other variable
names.

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 An index must be a nonnegative integer.
 Can use an expression as an index.
 An indexed array name is an array-access expression.
 Can be used on the left side of an assignment to place a new
value into an array element.
 Every array object knows its own length and stores it in
a length instance variable.
 length cannot be changed because it’s a final variable.

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 Array objects
 Created with keyword new.
 You specify the element type and the number of elements in an
array-creation expression, which returns a reference that can be
stored in an array variable.
 Declaration and array-creation expression for an array
of 12 int elements
int[] c = new int[ 12 ];
 Can be performed in two steps as follows:
int[] c; // declare the array variable
c = new int[ 12 ]; // creates the array

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 In a declaration, square brackets following a type
indicate that a variable will refer to an array (i.e., store
an array reference).
 When an array is created, each element of the array

receives a default value

 Zero for the numeric primitive-type elements, false for
boolean elements and null for references.

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 When the element type and the square brackets are
combined at the beginning of the declaration, all the
identifiers in the declaration are array variables.
 E.g. int [] arr1, arr2; // both arr1 and arr2 are arrays
 For readability, declare only one variable per
declaration.

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 Every element of a primitive-type array contains a
value of the array’s declared element type.
 Every element of an int array is an int value.
 Every element of a reference-type array is a reference
to an object of the array’s declared element type.
 Every element of a String array is a reference to a String
object.

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 Fig. 7.2 uses keyword new to create an array of 10
int elements, which are initially zero (the default for
int variables).

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 Array initializer
 A comma-separated list of expressions (called an initializer
list) enclosed in braces.
 Used to create an array and initialize its elements.
 Array length is determined by the number of elements in the
initializer list.
int[] n = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };
 Creates a five-element array with index values 0–4.
 Compiler counts the number of initializers in the list to
determine the size of the array
 Sets up the appropriate new operation “behind the scenes.”

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 The application in Fig. 7.4 creates a 10-element array
and assigns to each element one of the even integers
from 2 to 20 (2, 4, 6, …, 20).

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 final variables must be initialized before they are
used and cannot be modified thereafter.
 An attempt to modify a final variable after it’s

initialized causes a compilation error

 cannot assign a value to final variable
variableName
 An attempt to access the value of a final variable
before it’s initialized causes a compilation error
 variable variableName might not have been
initialized

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 Figure 7.5 sums the values contained in a 10-element
integer array.
 Often, the elements of an array represent a series of

values to be used in a calculation.

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 Many programs present data to users in a graphical manner.
 Numeric values are often displayed as bars in a bar chart.
 Longer bars represent proportionally larger numeric values.
 A simple way to display numeric data is with a bar chart
that shows each numeric value as a bar of asterisks (*).
 Format specifier %02d indicates that an int value should
be formatted as a field of two digits.
 The 0 flag displays a leading 0 for values with fewer digits than the
field width (2).

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 Sometimes, programs use counter variables to summarize
data, such as the results of a survey.
 Fig. 6.7 used separate counters in a die-rolling program to
track the number of occurrences of each side of a six-sided
die as the program rolled the die 6,000,000 times.
 Fig. 7.7 shows an array version of this application.
 Line 14 of this program replaces lines 23–46 of Fig. 6.7.
 Array frequency must be large enough to store six
counters.
 We use a seven-element array in which we ignore frequency[0]
 More logical to have the face value 1 increment frequency[1]
than frequency[0].

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 Read Topic 7.5 yourself (at the end of these slides):
Card Shuffling and Dealing Simulation

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 Enhanced for statement
 Iterates through the elements of an array without using a counter.
 Avoids the possibility of “stepping outside” the array.
 Also works with the Java API’s prebuilt collections (see
Section 7.14).
 Syntax:
for ( parameter : arrayName )
statement
where parameter has a type and an identifier and
arrayName is the array through which to iterate.
 Parameter type must be consistent with the array’s element
type.
 The enhanced for statement simplifies the code for
iterating through an array.

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 The enhanced for statement can be used only to
obtain array elements
 It cannot be used to modify elements.
 To modify elements, use the traditional counter-controlled
for statement.
 Can be used in place of the counter-controlled for
statement if you don’t need to access the index of the
element.

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 To pass an array argument to a method, specify the name of
the array without any brackets.
 Since every array object “knows” its own length, we need not pass
the array length as an additional argument.
 To receive an array, the method’s parameter list must
specify an array parameter.

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 Pass-by-value (also called call-by-value)
 When an argument to a method is an individual array element
of a primitive type, the called method receives a copy of the
element’s value.
 A copy of the argument’s value is passed to the called method.
 The called method works exclusively with the copy.
 Changes to the called method’s copy do not affect the original
variable’s value in the caller.

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 Pass-by-reference (also called call-by-reference)
 When an argument to a method is an entire array or an individual
array element of a reference type, the called method receives a
copy of the reference.
 The called method can access the argument’s value in the caller
directly and modify that data, if necessary.
 Improves performance by eliminating the need to copy possibly
large amounts of data.

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 All arguments in Java are ACTUALLY passed by value.
 A method call can pass two types of values to a method
 Copies of primitive values
 Copies of references to objects
 Objects cannot be passed to methods.
 If a method modifies a reference-type parameter so that it refers
to another object, only the parameter refers to the new object
 The reference stored in the caller’s variable still refers to the original
object.

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// our main class becomes a file but the main method is still found
public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) { Output:

OtherClass myObject = new OtherClass("Hello World!");
System.out.println(myObject.message); Hello World!
passObject(myObject); A changed
System.out.println(myObject.message); message
}

public static void passObject(OtherClass c2) {

c2.message = "A changed message";
}
}

// this will become its own file too (and these can be in any order)
public class OtherClass {
public String message;
public OtherClass(String input) {
message = input;
}
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// our main class becomes a file but the main method is still found
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
OtherClass myObject = new OtherClass("Hello World!"); Output:
System.out.println(myObject.message);
passObject(myObject);
Hello World!
System.out.println(myObject.message);
}
Hello World!
public static void passObject(OtherClass c2) {
c2 = new OtherClass(“A changed message”):
}
}

// this will become its own file too (and these can be in any order)
public class OtherClass {
public String message;
public OtherClass(String input) {
message = input;
}
}

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 Previous versions of class GradeBook process a set
of grades entered by the user, but do not maintain the
individual grade values in instance variables of the
class.
 Repeat calculations require the user to reenter the same grades.
 We solve this problem by storing grades in an array.
 The grades array’s size is determined by the length
of the array that is passed to the constructor.
 So a GradeBook object can process a variable number of
grades.

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 The application of Fig. 7.15 creates an object of class
GradeBook (Fig. 7.14) using the int array
grades-Array.
 Lines 12–13 pass a course name and gradesArray

to the GradeBook constructor.

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 Two-dimensional arrays are often used to represent tables of
values consisting of information arranged in rows and
columns.
 Identify a particular table element with two indices.
 By convention, the first identifies the element’s row and the second
its column.
 Multidimensional arrays can have more than two
dimensions.
 Java does not support multidimensional arrays directly
 Allows you to specify one-dimensional arrays whose elements are
also one-dimensional arrays, thus achieving the same effect.
 In general, an array with m rows and n columns is called an
m-by-n array.

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 Multidimensional arrays can be initialized with array
initializers in declarations.
 A two-dimensional array b with two rows and two
columns could be declared and initialized with nested
array initializers as follows:
int[][] b = { { 1, 2 }, { 3, 4 } };
 The initial values are grouped by row in braces.
 The number of nested array initializers (represented by sets of
braces within the outer braces) determines the number of rows.
 The number of initializer values in the nested array initializer
for a row determines the number of columns in that row.
 Rows can have different lengths.

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 The lengths of the rows in a two-dimensional array are
not required to be the same:
int[][] b = { { 1, 2 }, { 3, 4, 5 } };
 Each element of b is a reference to a one-dimensional array of
int variables.
 The int array for row 0 is a one-dimensional array with two
elements (1 and 2).
 The int array for row 1 is a one-dimensional array with three
elements (3, 4 and 5).

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 A multidimensional array with the same number of columns in
every row can be created with an array-creation expression.
int[][] b = new int[ 3 ][ 4 ];
 3 rows and 4 columns.
 The elements of a multidimensional array are initialized when the
array object is created.
 A multidimensional array in which each row has a different
number of columns can be created as follows:
int[][] b = new int[ 2 ][ ]; // create 2 rows
b[ 0 ] = new int[ 5 ]; // create 5 columns for row 0
b[ 1 ] = new int[ 3 ]; // create 3 columns for row 1
 Creates a two-dimensional array with two rows.
 Row 0 has five columns, and row 1 has three columns.

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 Figure 7.17 demonstrates initializing two-dimensional
arrays with array initializers and using nested for
loops to traverse the arrays.

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 In most semesters, students take several exams.
 Figure 7.18 contains a version of class GradeBook

that uses a two-dimensional array grades to store the

grades of a number of students on multiple exams.
 Each row represents a student’s grades for the entire course.
 Each column represents the grades of all the students who took
a particular exam.
 In this example, we use a ten-by-three array containing
ten students’ grades on three exams.

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 Arrays class
 Provides static methods for common array manipulations.
 Methods include
 sort for sorting an array (ascending order by default)
 binarySearch for searching a sorted array
 equals for comparing arrays
 fill for placing values into an array.
 Methods are overloaded for primitive-type arrays and
for arrays of objects.
 System class static arraycopy method
 Copies contents of one array into another.

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 Variable-length argument lists
 Can be used to create methods that receive an unspecified
number of arguments.
 Parameter type followed by an ellipsis (...) indicates that the
method receives a variable num-ber of arguments of that
particular type.
 The ellipsis can occur only once at the end of a parameter list.

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 Command-line arguments
 Can pass arguments from the command line to an application.
 Arguments that appear after the class name in the java
command are received by main in the String array args.
 The number of command-line arguments is obtained by
accessing the array’s length attribute.
 Command-line arguments are separated by white space, not
commas.

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 Arrays do not automatically change their size at execution time
to accommodate additional elements.
 ArrayList<T> (package java.util) can dynamically
change its size to accommodate more elements.
 You have to import java.util.ArrayList before using ArrayList
 T is a placeholder for the type of element stored.
 This is similar to specifying the type when declaring an array, except
that only non-primitive types can be used with these classes.
 We will shortly see what to do about primitive types
 Classes with this kind of placeholder that can be used with any
type are called generic classes.

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 Figure 7.24 demonstrates some common ArrayList
capabilities.

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 Method add adds elements to the ArrayList.
 One-argument version appends its argument to the end of the
ArrayList.
 Two-argument version inserts a new element at the specified
position.
 Collection indices start at zero.
 Method size returns the number of elements in the
ArrayList.
 Method get obtains the element at a specified index.
 Method remove deletes an element with a specific value.
 An overloaded version of the method removes the element at the
specified index.
 Method contains determines if an item is in the
ArrayList.

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7.14 ArrayList (Contd.)
 Method set modifies an element in the ArrayList.
◦ Two-arguments
 1. index (position) of element,
 2. new (modified) value of the element at specified index

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public static void main(String[] args)
{
ArrayList<String> items = new ArrayList<String>();
items.add("yellow");
items.add("red");
display(items);

items.add("blue");
items.remove("red");
display(items); OUTPUT

items.set(0, "new"); yellow

display(items); red
}
yellow
blue

new
blue

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Wrapper classes
 Each of Java's eight primitive data types has a class dedicated
to it, known as its wrapper class
◦ they "wrap" the primitive data type into an object of that
class.

 The wrapper classes are part of the java.lang package, which

is imported by default into all Java programs.

 Primitive Types can not be used with an ArrayList, however,

corresponding wrapper classes can be used for this purpose.

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 primitive Wrapper
Wrapper classes (Contd.) Class
boolean Boolean
byte Byte
 Table on right shows eight primitive char Character
types along with their wrapper
classes int Integer
 To create an integer variable and an float Float
object of Integer wrapper class:
int x = 25; double Double
Integer y = new Integer(33); long Long
 To create an ArrayList of Integers: short Short

ArrayList<Integer> intAL = new ArrayList<Integer>();

 Rest of the details of using

ArrayList is the same as with String
(or any other reference type), which
we already discussed
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import java.lang.Math; // header stuff MUST go above the first class
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.util.ArrayList;
// our main class becomes a file but the main method is still found
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<Integer> alIntegers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
int number;
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);

alIntegers.add(23); // no error
alIntegers.add(new Integer(25));
Integer myInt = new Integer(100);
alIntegers.add(myInt);

System.out.println("printing using Integer class");

for(Integer i: alIntegers) {
System.out.println(i);
}
System.out.println("printing using int type");
for(int i: alIntegers) { // quite ok
System.out.println(i);
}
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 Drawing arcs in Java is similar to drawing ovals—an arc is
simply a section of an oval.
 Graphics method fillArc draws a filled arc.
 Method fillArc requires six parameters.
 The first four represent the bounding rectangle in which the arc will be
drawn.
 The fifth parameter is the starting angle on the oval, and the sixth
specifies the sweep, or the amount of arc to cover.
 Starting angle and sweep are measured in degrees, with zero degrees
pointing right.
 A positive sweep draws the arc counterclockwise.
 Method drawArc requires the same parameters as fillArc,
but draws the edge of the arc rather than filling it.
 Method setBackground changes the background color of a
GUI component.

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 Examples thus far used arrays containing elements of
primitive types.
 Elements of an array can be either primitive types or

reference types.
 Next example uses an array of reference-type elements

—objects representing playing cards—to develop a

class that simulates card shuffling and dealing.

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 Class Card (Fig. 7.9) contains two String instance
variables—face and suit—that are used to store
references to the face and suit names for a specific
Card.
 Method toString creates a String consisting of

the face of the card, " of " and the suit of the
card.
 Can invoke explicitly to obtain a string representation of a
Card.
 Called implicitly when the object is used where a String is
expected.

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 Class DeckOfCards (Fig. 7.10) declares as an
instance variable a Card array named deck.
 Deck’s elements are null by default
 Constructor fills the deck array with Card objects.
 Method shuffle shuffles the Cards in the deck.
 Loops through all 52 Cards (array indices 0 to 51).
 Each Card swapped with a randomly chosen other card in the
deck.
 Method dealCard deals one Card in the array.
 currentCard indicates the index of the next Card to be
dealt
 Returns null if there are no more cards to deal

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 Figure 7.11 demonstrates class DeckOfCards
(Fig. 7.10).
 When a Card is output as a String, the Card’s

toString method is implicitly invoked.

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