INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
INSTRUCTOR: Getahun G.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
1. INTRODUCTION
Definition:
We can define statistics in two ways.
1.Plural sense :It is an aggregate or collection of numerical facts.
2. Singular sense: the science of collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing and interpreting numerical data for the purpose of
assisting in making a more effective decision.
Classifications: Depending on how data can be used statistics is
divided in to two main areas or branches.
1.Descriptive Statistics: is concerned with summary calculations,
graphs, charts and tables.
2.Inferential Statistics: is a method used to generalize from a sample
to a population.
For example: the average income of all families (the population) in
Ethiopia can be estimated from figures obtained from a few hundred (the
sample) families.
•It is important because statistical data usually arises from sample.
•Statistical techniques based on probability theory are required.
Stages in Statistical Investigation
There are five stages or steps in any statistical investigation.
1. Collection of data: the process of measuring, gathering, assembling the raw data up
on which the statistical investigation is to be based.
– Data can be collected in a variety of ways; one of the most common methods is
through the use of survey.
– Survey can also be done in different methods, three of the most common methods
are:
• Telephone survey
• Mailed questionnaire
• Personal interview.
• Exercise: discuss the advantage and disadvantage of the above three methods with
respect to each other.
2. Organization of data: Summarization of data in some
meaningful way, e.g table form
3. Presentation of the data: The process of re-
organization, classification, compilation, and summer
arization of data to present it in a meaningful form.
4. Analysis of data: The process of extracting relevant
information from the summarized data, mainly through
the use of elementary mathematical operation.
5. Inference of data: The interpretation and further
observation of the various statistical measures through the
analysis of the data by implementing those methods by
which conclusions are formed and inferences made.
•Statistical techniques based on probability theory are
required.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Definitions of some terms
• Statistical Population: It is the collection of all possible observations of a
specified characteristic of interest (possessing certain common property) and
being under study. An example is all of the students in AAU 3101 course in
this term.
• Sample: It is a subset of the population, selected using some sampling
technique in such a way that they represent the population.
• Sampling: The process or method of sample selection from the population.
• Sample size: The number of elements or observation to be included in the
sample.
• Census: Complete enumeration or observation of the elements of the
population. Or it is the collection of data from every element in a population.
• Parameter: Characteristic or measure obtained from a population.
• Statistic: Characteristic or measure obtained from a sample.
• Variable: It is an item of interest that can take on many different numerical
values.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Types of Variables or Data
1. Qualitative Variables are nonnumeric variables and
can't be measured. Examples include gender, religious affiliation,
and state of birth.
2. Quantitative Variables are numerical variables and can be
measured. Examples include balance in checking account, number of
children in family.
Applications of statistics
• In almost all fields of human endeavor.
• Almost all human beings in their daily life are subjected to
obtaining numerical facts e.g. abut price.
• Applicable in some process e.g. invention of certain drugs,
extent of environmental pollution.
• In industries especially in quality control area.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Uses of statistics
The main function of statistics is to enlarge our
knowledge of complex phenomena. The following are
some uses of statistics:
1. It presents facts in a definite and precise form.
2. Data reduction.
3. Measuring the magnitude of variations in data.
4. Furnishes a technique of comparison
5. Estimating unknown population characteristics.
6. Testing and formulating of hypothesis.
7. Studying the relationship between two or more
variable.
8. Forecasting future events.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Limitations of statistics
As a science statistics has its own limitations. The following are
some of the limitations:
•Deals with only quantitative information.
•Deals with only aggregate of facts and not with individual data
items.
•Statistical data are only approximately and not mathematical
correct.
•Statistics can be easily misused and therefore should be used be
experts.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Scales of measurement
Proper knowledge about the nature and type of data to be dealt
with is essential in order to specify and apply the proper statistical
method for their analysis and inferences.
Measurement scale refers to the property of value assigned to the
data based on the properties of order, distance and fixed zero.
In mathematical terms measurement is a functional mapping from
the set of objects {Oi} to the set of real numbers {M(Oi)}.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
The goal of measurement systems is to structure the rule for
assigning numbers to objects in such a way that the relationship
between the objects is preserved in the numbers assigned to the
objects.
The different kinds of relationships preserved are called properties
of the measurement system.
Order
The property of order exists when an object that has more of the attribute
than another object, is given a bigger number by the rule system. This
relationship must hold for all objects in the "real world".
The property of ORDER exists
When for all i, j if Oi > Oj, then M(Oi) > M(Oj).
Distance
The property of distance is concerned with the relationship of differences
between objects. If a measurement system possesses the property of
distance it means that the unit of measurement means the same thing
throughout the scale of numbers. That is, an inch is an inch, no matters were
it falls - immediately aheadPrepared
10/20/2024
or aBymile downs the road.
Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Fixed Zero
A measurement system possesses a rational zero (fixed
zero) if an object that has none of the attribute in question
is assigned the number zero by the system of rules.
The object does not need to really exist in the "real
world", as it is somewhat difficult to visualize a "man with
no height".
The requirement for a rational zero is this: if objects with
none of the attribute did exist would they be given the
value zero.
Defining O0 as the object with none of the attribute in
question, the definition of a rational zero becomes:
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
SCALE TYPES
• Measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects or events in a
systematic fashion.
• Four levels of measurement scales are commonly distinguished: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio and each possessed different properties of
measurement systems.
Nominal Scales: are measurement systems that possess none of the three
properties stated above.
• Level of measurement which classifies data into mutually exclusive, all
inclusive categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
• No arithmetic and relational operation can be applied.
• Examples:
– Political party preference (Republican, Democrat, or Other,)
– Sex (Male or Female.)
– Marital status(married, single, widow, divorce)
– Country code
– Regional differentiation of Ethiopia.
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Ordinal Scales
Ordinal Scales are measurement systems that possess the property
of order, but not the property of distance.
The property of fixed zero is not important if the property of
distance is not satisfied.
• Level of measurement which classifies data into categories that
can be ranked Differences between the ranks do not exist.
• Arithmetic operations are not applicable but relational
operations are applicable.
• Ordering is the sole property of ordinal scale.
• Examples:
– Letter grades (A, B, C, D, F)
– Rating scales (Excellent, Very good, Good, Fair, poor)
– Military status
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Interval Scales
Interval scales are measurement systems that possess the
properties of Order and distance, but not the property of
fixed zero.
• Level of measurement which classifies data that can be
ranked and differences are meaningful. However, there is
no meaningful zero, so ratios are meaningless.
• All arithmetic operations except division are applicable.
• Relational operations are also possible.
• Examples:
– IQ
– Temperature in oF
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
bo University Woliso Campus
Ratio Scales
• Are measurement systems that possess all three properties: order,
distance, and fixed zero.
• The added power of a fixed zero allows ratios of numbers to be
meaningfully interpreted; i.e. the ratio of Bekele's height to
Martha's height is 1.32, whereas this is not possible with interval
scales.
• Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked,
differences are meaningful, and there is a true zero.
• True ratios exist between the different units of measure.
• All arithmetic and relational operations are applicable.
• Examples:
– Weight
– Height
– Number of students
10/20/2024 Prepared By Getahun G. Woldemariam Am
– Age bo University Woliso Campus
