Lecture 2a

Network Models

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2.1
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

For example, consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. Sending a letter to a friend would
be complex if no services were available from the post
office.

2.2
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.3
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

2.4
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.5
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.6
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
“Please Do Not Throw Salami Pizza Away”

2.7
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.8
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of

each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.9
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry

a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.

2.10
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.11
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer Done 31/1/2022

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw

transmission facility, to a reliable link.

2.12
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.13
 Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery at data link layer

As the figure 2.7 shows, communication at the data link layer occurs between two
adjacent nodes.

To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made:

- First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the data link layer at B (a router).

- Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the data link layer at E.

- Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the data link layer at F.

2.14
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.15
 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer
oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network
(links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to
its final destination.

If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a
network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks
(links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

2.16
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.17
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.18
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.19
 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery

of the entire message.

A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas

the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between
those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each
piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does.

The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order

2.20
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.21
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.22
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.23
 Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.24
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.25
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.26
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.27
 Application layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or

software, to access the network.

It provides user interfaces and support for services such as

electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.

2.28
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.29
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.30
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.31
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data
link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical
Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.32
 TCP/IP (Internet) and OSI model

Interface 7-6

Interface 6-5

Interface 5-4

Interface 4-3

Interface 3-2

Interface 2-1

The passing of the data through the layers is made possible by

an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.
Each interface defines the information and services which a
layer must provide for the layer above.

2.33
1-34
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port,
and specific.

Topics in this section:

Physical Addresses or MAC addresses
Logical Addresses or IP addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses (We will not discuss here)

2.35
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.36
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.37
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).

As the figure shows, the computer with physical address

10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.

2.38
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

The physical address is also called the MAC address and it

is generated by the manufacturer. This is unique for each
system and cannot be changed.

2.39
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.40
 IP addresses

An IP address is a number that uniquely identifies computers and other

devices such as a printer or router on the Internet.

IP addresses are normally expressed in dotted-decimal format, with four

numbers separated by periods, such as 192.168.123.132.

Every client, server and network device is assigned an IP address, and every
IP packet traversing an IP network contains a source IP address and a
destination IP address.

2.41
 Port addresses

Port addressing is giving different applications (or programs) a unique port

number so data can be forwarded to the correct application.

The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to
travel from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the
destination host is not the final objective of data communications on the
Internet.

A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not
complete. Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the
same time. The end objective of Internet communication is a process
communicating with another process.

Port number is ranging from 1 to 65535 (port number 0 is reserved and can't
be used).

2.42
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the Internet.

The sending computer is running three processes at this time with
port addresses a, b, and c.

The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with

port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to
communicate with process j in the receiving computer.

Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop,

logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.43
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.44
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.45
 END

2.46