COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN

5
Edition
th

The Hardware/Software Interface

Chapter 3
Arithmetic for Computers
 §3.1 Introduction
Arithmetic for Computers
 Operations on integers
 Addition and subtraction
 Multiplication and division
 Dealing with overflow
 Floating-point real numbers
 Representation and operations

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 2

Possible Representations

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 3

MIPS: 32-bit signed integers

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 4

Addition and Subtraction

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 5

Add and Subtract

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 6

 §3.2 Addition and Subtraction
Integer Addition
 Example: 7 + 6

 Overflow if result out of range


Adding +ve and –ve operands, no overflow

The result will be less than one of the operands

Adding two +ve operands

Overflow if result sign is 1

Adding two –ve operands

Overflow if result sign is 0
Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 7
Integer Subtraction
 Add negation of second operand
 Example: 7 – 6 = 7 + (–6)
+7: 0000 0000 … 0000 0111
–6: 1111 1111 … 1111 1010
+1: 0000 0000 … 0000 0001
 Overflow if result out of range
 Subtracting two +ve or two –ve operands, no overflow
 Subtracting +ve from –ve operand

Overflow if result sign is 0
 Subtracting –ve from +ve operand

Overflow if result sign is 1

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 8

Overflow in unsigned addition

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 9

Overflow in unsigned subtraction

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 10

Overflow in signed addition

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 11

Overflow in signed subtraction

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 12

Overflow with Unsigned

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 13

Dealing with Overflow

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 14

Arithmetic for Multimedia

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 15

 §3.3 Multiplication
Multiplication
 Start with long-multiplication approach
multiplicand
1000
multiplier
× 1001
1000
0000
0000
1000
product 1001000

Length of product is
the sum of operand
lengths

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 16

Multiplication Hardware

Initially 0

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 17

Example : 2 x 3

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 18

Optimized Multiplier
 Perform steps in parallel: add/shift

 One cycle per partial-product addition

 That’s ok, if frequency of multiplications is low
Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 19
Faster Multiplier
 Uses multiple adders
 Cost/performance tradeoff

 Can be pipelined
 Several multiplication performed in parallel
Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 20
MIPS Multiplication

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 21

 §3.4 Division
Division

quotient

dividend
1001
1000 1001010
-1000
divisor
10
101
1010
-1000
remainder 10

n-bit operands yield n-bit

quotient and remainder

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 22

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 23

Division Reminder register 
Dividend
initially

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 24

Division: 7 by 2

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 25

Division: 7 by 2

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 26

Division Hardware
Initially divisor
in left half

Initially dividend

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 27

Optimized Divider

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 28

MIPS Division

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 29

 §3.5 Floating Point
Floating Point

normalized

not normalized

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 30

Floating Point Standard
 Defined by IEEE Std 754-1985
 Developed in response to divergence of
representations
 Portability issues for scientific code
 Now almost universally adopted
 Two representations
 Single precision (32-bit)
 Double precision (64-bit)

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 31

Floating Point
In general, the floating point numbers are of the form,

Single Precision

Double Precision

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 32

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 33

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 34

What if 2’s Comp. used for E?

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 35

IEEE Floating-Point Format

S Exponent Fraction

x (  1)S (1 Fraction) 2(Exponent Bias)

 S: sign bit (0  non-negative, 1  negative)
 Normalize significand: 1.0 ≤ |significand| < 2.0

Always has a leading pre-binary-point 1 bit, so no need to
represent it explicitly (hidden bit)

Significand is Fraction with the “1.” restored
 Exponent: excess representation: actual exponent + Bias

Ensures exponent is unsigned

Single: Bias = 127; Double: Bias = 1203

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 36

IEEE 754 format
Single-Precision Range

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 38

Double-Precision Range

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 39

Floating Point Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 40eeeeeeeeeeee

Zero, Infinity and NaN

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 41

Denormalized Numbers
• Numbers represented in Unnormalized form

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 42

IEEE 754 Encoding Summary

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 43

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 44

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 45

Example

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 46

Floating-Point Addition
 Consider a 4-digit decimal example
 9.999 × 101 + 1.610 × 10–1
 1. Align decimal points
 Shift number with smaller exponent
 9.999 × 101 + 0.016 × 101
 2. Add significands
 9.999 × 101 + 0.016 × 101 = 10.015 × 101
 3. Normalize result & check for over/underflow
 1.0015 × 102
 4. Round and renormalize if necessary
 1.002 × 102

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 47

Floating-Point Addition
 Now consider a 4-digit binary example

1.0002 × 2–1 + –1.1102 × 2–2 (0.5 + –0.4375)
 1. Align binary points
 Shift number with smaller exponent

1.0002 × 2–1 + –0.1112 × 2–1
 2. Add significands

1.0002 × 2–1 + –0.1112 × 2–1 = 0.0012 × 2–1
 3. Normalize result & check for over/underflow

1.0002 × 2–4, with no over/underflow
 4. Round and renormalize if necessary

1.0002 × 2–4 (no change) = 0.0625

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 48

FP Adder Hardware

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 49

FP Arithmetic Hardware

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 52

Co-processors in MIPS

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 53

FP Instructions in MIPS
 FP hardware is coprocessor 1

Adjunct processor that extends the ISA
 Separate FP registers

32 single-precision: $f0, $f1, … $f31

Paired for double-precision: $f0/$f1, $f2/$f3, …
 FP instructions operate only on FP registers
 FP load and store instructions

lwc1, ldc1, swc1, sdc1

e.g., ldc1 $f8, 32($sp)

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 54

FP Instructions in MIPS

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 55

Associativity
 Parallel programs may interleave
operations in unexpected orders
 Assumptions of associativity may fail
(x+y)+z x+(y+z)
x -1.50E+38 -1.50E+38
y 1.50E+38 0.00E+00
z 1.0 1.0 1.50E+38
1.00E+00 0.00E+00
 Need to validate parallel programs under
varying degrees of parallelism
Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 56
Who Cares About FP Accuracy?

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 57

Intel Pentium FDIV Bug

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 58

Rounding off the result

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 59

Accuracy

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 60

Guard, Round and Sticky bits
 The sticky bit allows the computer to see
the difference between 0.50 … 00 and
0.50 … 01 when rounding.

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 61

 §3.9 Concluding Remarks
Concluding Remarks
 Bits have no inherent meaning
 Interpretation depends on the instructions
applied
 Computer representations of numbers
 Finite range and precision
 Need to account for this in programs

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 62

References
 Lecture -16 Floating Point Arithmetic
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=03fhijH6e2w&list=PL59E5B57A04EAE09C
&index=16

Chapter 3 — Arithmetic for Computers — 63