ELECTRICAL

MACHINES
• The machines which are operated in relation with electrical energy
are called electric machines or electrical machines. In
electrical machines, either input or output or both can be electricity.
• An electrical machine is a machines which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy or vice versa.
• Electrical machine, also, not only make conversion between
mechanical and electrical energy, but they transfer electric
power
from one circuit to another circuit.
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• Stationary Electrical Machines:
• A stationary electrical machine is such kind of machine which
does not have any moving parts & they remain stationary
throughout its operation.
• Dynamic Electrical Machines:
• Such type of machines consists of moving parts as well as
stationary parts.
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL
MACHINES
Transformer
Contents
• Introduction
• Basic Principle
• Transformer Types
• Ideal & Practical Transformer
• Equivalent Circuit
• Losses in Transformer
• Regulation & Efficiency
• Auto-Transformer
• 3-Phase Transformer
Connections
Introduction
• The transformer is a static device which is used to transfer electrical energy from
one
circuit to another circuit.
• Input to a transformer and output from a transformer both are alternating
quantities (AC).
• It has two windings i.e. Primary & secondary winding. Both winding are wounded
around a stationary iron core.
• There is no electrical contact between the two winding.
Basic Principle
 Basic Principle

• The primary winding is connected to the single – phase ac

supply, an ac current starts flowing through it.
• The ac primary current produces an alternating flux (Ф) in the
core.
• Most of this changing flux gets linked with the primary and
secondary winding through the core.
• The varying flux will induce voltage into the primary and
secondary winding according to the faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction.
• Voltage level change but frequency i.e. time period remains same.
Can the transformer operate on DC?
• Answer: NO
• The transformer action does not take place with a direct current of
constant
magnitude.
• Because with a DC primary current, the flux produced in the core is
not alternating but it is of constant value.
• As there is no change in the flux linkage with the secondary winding,
the induced emf in the secondary is zero.
• IfDC is applied to the primary then there is a possibility of transformer
core saturation.
• Ifcore saturates the primary will draw excessivelylarge current.
Therefore application of DC should be avoided.
 Transformer Types
• The transformers are of different types depending on the arrangement of
the core and the windings.
Core Type Shell
Type

The windings surround a considerable part of the The core surrounds a considerable part of the
core. windings.
 Core
Construction
• In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling
(stacking) laminated sheets of steel. The steel used is having high
silicon content to provide high permeability and low hysteresis
loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current
loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L.
 Ideal
• Ithas no losses i.e. Transformer
its windings have no ohmic resistance, no
magnetic leakage.
• An ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a
loss- free core.
• In practice an ideal transformer is not possible as there is loss of power in
the core and
windings.
 Practical Transformer

• The primary and secondary windings have finite resistance.

• There is a leakage flux, i.e., whole of the flux is not confined to
the magnetic circuit.
• There are losses in the transformer. Therefore, the efficiency of
a practical transformer is less than 100 %.
 EMF Equation of The Transformer

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary
winding
Φ m = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) =
(Bm * A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
= Φ
Average rate of change of flux = Φ / m / (1/4f)
m (T/4)

Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm ....... (Wb/s)
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........
(Volts).

Now, Form factor = RMS value / average value

RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor * average

emf per turn.

As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine

wave is 1.11

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 * 4f Φ m

= 4.44f Φm.

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf
Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

from the above equations 1 and 2,

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf /

number of turns is same for both primary and secondary
winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
 Transformation Ratio and Turns
• 𝐸Ratio 𝑁
=
2

𝐸1 𝑉
2

𝑉2 1
=k
=
𝑁1
voltage =>
transformation ratio

•If k > 1, then V2>

V1 => step up
•If k < 1, then V2<
V1 => step down
•If k = 1, then V2 =
V1 => isolation type

Transformation Ratio = 1 / Turns

Ratio
Example
An 11000/440 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has maximum value of
flux density of 1.1 tesla. Number of turns in the primary winding is
5500. Calculate (i) area of cross section of the core, (ii) number of turns
in the secondary winding, (iii) turns ratio, (iv) transformation ratio, (v)
volt per turn.

Ans. (i) A = 0.00819 m2

(ii)N2 = 220
(iii)Turns ratio = N1 / N2 = 25
(iv)Transformation ratio = V 2 / V1 = 0.04
(v) Voltage per turn = V1/T1 = 2
Example
• The primary winding of a 50-Hz transformer has 480 turns and is fed
from a 6400-V supply. Determine (a) the peak value of the flux in
the core, and (b) the secondary voltage if the secondary winding
has 20 turns.

• [Ans. : (a) 0.06 Wb; (b) 266.4 V]

Typical Practical Transformer
Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer
Transformer Losses
• In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between
input power and output power. An electrical transformer is an static device,
hence mechanical or rotational losses (like windage or friction losses) are
absent in it.
• A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and
copper losses).
• Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties
of the material used for the construction of core. Hence these losses are
also known as core losses or iron losses. It is also constant losses as it does
not dependent on load.
• Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. It
depends on load current also. So it varies with load.
 Iron Loss or Core Loss

• Hysteresis Loss => Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of

magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the
volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals
and value of flux density. This power is dissipated in the form of
heat and is know as ‘Hysteresis Loss’.
• It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:

Wh= ηBmax1.6 f V (watts)

where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

V = volume of the core in m3
Hysteresis
Loss
•The hysteresis loss of a magnetic material depends upon its area of
the hysteresis loop. Hence the magnetic materials such as silicon
steel, which has very small hysteresis loop area, are used for the
construction of the core to minimize the hysteresis loss in a
transformer.
Eddy current loss in transformer:
• Due to alternating flux in a transformer, some EMF is induced in the
transformer core. This induced EMF causes some currents to flow through
the core of the transformer. These currents are known as eddy currents.
• The core of transformer has some finite resistance. Hence due to the flow
of eddy currents, some power losses take place and are known as ‘Eddy
current losses’
• Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of
• heat.
Pe = KeV f2 t2 Bm
2
Eddy current loss in transformer:
• The eddy current losses in transformer are minimized by using the
laminated core. These laminations are insulated from each other by mean
of a thin varnish coating. Hence each lamination acts as a separate core of
a small cross sectional area, offers a high resistance to the flow of eddy
currents.
Copper Loss

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.

Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding
is I22R 2. Where, I 1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding
respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary
winding respectively.
It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and
current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies
with the load.
Copper Loss = IP2 RP + IS2 RS
Exam
ple • The primary and the secondary windings of a 500kVA
transformer have resistance of 0.42 ohms and
0.0011 ohms respectively.
The primary and the secondary voltages are 6600V
and 400V respectively. Calculate copper losses at the full load.

Answer :4125W
Efficiency
• Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can
be defined as the output power divided by the input power.
• That is efficiency = output in watts / input in watts
• Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of
the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% .
• A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is using,
efficiency
= (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).
Efficiency
Example

• In a 50-kVA, 11-kV/400-V, single-phase transformer, the iron

copper losses are 500 W and 600 W, respectively under rated
and
conditions. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor at full load.
• [Ans. : (a) 97.85 %
Example
• A 500 KVA transformer has 2500 watts iron loss, and 7500 watts
copper loss at full load. The power factor is 0.8 lagging.
Calculate:transformer efficiency at full load
• (Ans) : 97.56%
Voltage Regulation of Transformer

• The voltage regulation of transformer is defined as the change

in secondary terminal voltage (V2) from no-load to full load at
constant primary voltage.
• It is expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load
voltage.

% Regulation of transformer = (E2 – V2) x 100 /

E2
No-load voltage:
• The secondary terminal voltage of transformer when no load is
connected to the transformer is known as the no-load voltage of
the transformer.
• At no load, the secondary terminal voltage will be equal to induced
EMF in the secondary winding.

So, no-load voltage = E2 volts

Full load voltage:
• “Full-load” means the point at which the transformer is operating at
maximum permissible secondary current.
• It is the secondary terminal voltage of transformer when a rated load
is connected to the transformer. We will denote it by V2.
• When a transformer is loaded a voltage drop in primary and
secondary impedances of transformer takes place.
• As the load current increases, this voltage drop will
increase.
•This will reduce the secondary terminal voltage V2.
• The ideal value of voltage regulation of transformer is 0%.
 Exam
•ple
A single-phase transformer with a voltage regulation of 4% has a
secondary terminal voltage of 115.4 volts at full load current.
Calculate its no-load terminal voltage when the load is removed.

Answer :120.20 V
 Auto
• The working principleTransformer
of autotransformer is similar to that of
ordinary two winding transformers.
• In a two-winding transformer, primary and secondary are only
magnetically linked by a common core but are completely insulated
from each other. But in the case of an auto transformer windings
are connected electrically as well as magnetically.
• It consists of only one winding wound on a
laminated magnetic core, with a rotary movable contact.
Construction Of Auto Transformer

• An auto transformer consists of a single copper winding, which is

common in both primary as well as secondary circuit. The
copper
wire is wound a laminated silicon steel core, with at least three
tapping taken out. Secondary and primary circuit share the same
neutral point of the winding.

(V2 / V1) = (N2 / N1) = K

 Advantages of Auto
Transformer
•they are smaller in size

•Continuously varying voltage can be obtained.

•It needs less copper hence cheap in cost

• less drop and less losses, so it is more

efficient than a two- winding transformer of same ratings.
 Three-Phase Transformer
• Usually power is generated and distributed in three phase system,
and therefore we would need three phase transformers to step
up and step down voltages.
• The generation of an electrical power is usually three phase and at
higher voltages like 13.2 kV, 22 kV.
• The transmission of an electrical power is also at very high voltages
like 110 kV, 132 kV, 400 kV and 750 kV.
• At load centers or at the end consumers, distribution voltages of 6.6
kV,
2.3 kV and even 415 V, 230 V.
Principle
• The basic working principle of a three-phase transformer is the same as a
single-phase transformer i.e., on mutual induction.
• A three phase transformer can be constructed either by connecting together
three single-phase transformers, thereby forming a so-called three phase
transformer bank, or by using one assembled and balanced three phase
transformer which consists of three pairs of single phase windings
mounted onto one single laminated core.
The three cores are arrange at 120° from each other. Only primary windings are
shown on the cores for simplicity.

The primaries are connected to the three phase

supply. The three fluxes is also zero at any instant.

 Advantages of three phase
transformers
• One 'three phase transformer' occupies less space than a gang of three 'single phase
transformers'.
• Single 'three phase' unit is more economical
• Cost is 15% Less
• Transported easily
• More efficient

• Dis-Advantages of three phase transformers

• if fault occurs in one phase, the whole transformer is removed from service for
repairs.
Transformer Star and Delta
Configurations Line Voltage is the potential
difference between two phases or
lines.
In star connection, line voltage
is √3 times the phase voltage.

In star connection, phase voltage

is 1/√3 times the line voltage.

For Delta connection, the line

voltage and phase voltage are
equal.
3-Phase Transformer Connections
Star/Star
• Most economical for small, high-voltage transformers

Delta/Delta
• Economical for large, low-voltage transformers

Star/Delta
• The main use of this connection is at the substation end of
the transmission line where the voltage is to be stepped down.

Delta/Star
• Itis generally used to step up the voltage, at the beginning of
high tension transmission system.
Thanks
textboo
ks
• 1 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY (VOL-II) B.L.THEREJA FOR MACHINES

• 2 POWER SYSTEM V.K.MEHTA FOR POWER PART