LESSON 2: The Line and Analytic Geometry

in the Plane
Content:
1.7 Distance Formula and Midpoint Formula
1.8 Slope of a Line, Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
1.9 The Straight Line
11.1 Points, Lines, and Angles
11.2 The Parabola
11.3 The Circles and The Ellipse
11.4 The Hyperbola
11.5 Translation of Axes
11.6 Rotation of Axes. The General Equation of the Second Degree
1.7. DISTANCE FORMULA. MIDPOINT FORMULA
The distance between any two points in the plane is the length of the line segment
joining them.
Let P1, with coordinates (x1,y1), and P2, with
coordinates (x2,y2), be two points, and let d denote the length
of the segment between P1, and P2 (Fig.30). Draw a line
parallel to the y axis through P1, and do the same through P2.
These lines intersect the x axis at the points A (x1,0) and B
(x2, 0). (The symbol A (x1, 0) is to be read “the point A with
coordinates (x1, 0). Now, draw a line through P1 parallel to the
x axis; this line intersects the vertical through P2 and B at a
point C(x2, y,)
 DEFINITION ( Distance Formula): The distance d between two points P 1 ( x1, y1 ) and
P2 ( x2, y2 ) is defined to be:
d=

Notation. The distance d between any two distinct points is always positive!
 1.7. DISTANCE FORMULA. MIDPOINT FORMULA
EXAMPLE 1: Find the distance between the points P1 ( 3, 1 ) and P2 ( 5, - 2 ).
EXAMPLE 2: The point P1 (5, -2) is 4 units away from a second point P2, whose y
coordinate is 1. Locate the point P2.
Let A (x1,0) and B (x2,0) be two points on the x axis.
We define the directed distance from A to B to be x2 – x1. lf
B is to the right of A, as shown in Fig. 31(a), the directed
distance is positive. If B is to the left of A, as in Fig. 31 (b),
the directed distance is negative. If two points C(0, y1) and
D (0, y2) are on the y axis, the directed distance from C to D
is similarly defined to be y2 – y1. Directed distances are
defined only for pairs of points on a coordinate axis. While
ordinary distance between any two points is always
positive, note that directed distance may be positive or
negative.
 1.7. DISTANCE FORMULA. MIDPOINT FORMULA
Let P1(x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) be any two points in the
plane. We show how to find the coordinates of the midpoint of
the line segment joining P1 and P2. Let P, with coordinates (x̄ ,
ȳ), be the midpoint. Through P1, P, and P2 draw parallels to
the y axis, and through P1 a parallel to the x axis, forming the
triangles shown in Fig. 32. We recall from plane geometry the
statement, “A line parallel to the base of a triangle which
bisects one side also bisects the other side.” Since PC is
parallel to P2D and P is the midpoint of P1P2, it follows that C
is the midpoint of P1D. We see at once that A is the midpoint
of A1B1.The coordinates of A1 are (x1,0), the coordinates of A are (x̄ ,0), and those of B1 are
(x2, 0). Therefore the directed distance A1A must be equal to the directed distance AB1.
From the definition of directed distance we have: x̄ - x1 = x2 - x̄
and, solving for x̄ , we obtain: x̄ =
 1.7. DISTANCE FORMULA. MIDPOINT FORMULA
If we perform the same argument for the y coordinates, the result by analogy is:
ȳ =
Thus we have established the Midpoint Formula. The midpoint (x̄ , ȳ) of the line segment
joining P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is :
(x̄ , ȳ) = ( (x1 + x2 ), ( y1 + y2 ).

EXAMPLE 3: Locate the midpoint of the line segment joining the points P ( 3, -2 ) and
Q ( - 4, 5 )
EXAMPLE 4: Find the length of the line segment joining the point A ( 7, -2 ) to the
midpoint of the line segment between the points B ( 4, 1 ) and C ( 3, - 5 ).
EXAMPLE 5: A line segment AB has its midpoint at C ( 5, -1 ). Point A has coordinates
( 2, 3 ); find the coordinates of B.
1.8. SLOPE OF A LINE. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
A line L, not parallel to the x axis, intersects it. Such a
line and the x axis form two angles which are supplementary.
To be definite, we denote by the angle formed by starting on
the side of the x axis to the right of L and going
counterclockwise until we reach the line L. The angle will
have a value between 0 and 180. Two examples are shown in
Fig. 33. The angle is called the inclination of the line L. All
lines parallel to the x axis are said to make a zero angle with
the x axis and therefore have inclination zero. From plane
geometry we recall the statement: “ If when two lines are cut
by a transversal, corresponding angles are equal, the lines are
parallel. and conversely.” In Fig. 34, lines L1 and L2 each have
inclination . Applying the theorem of plane geometry, with the
x axis as the transversal, we conclude that L1 and L2 are
parallel. More generally, all lines with the same inclination are
parallel and, conversely, all parallel lines have the same
inclination.
 1.8. SLOPE OF A LINE. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
The notion of inclination is a simple one which is easy to understand. However, for purposes
of analytic geometry and calculus it is cumbersome and difficult to use. For this reason we
introduce the notion of the slope of a line L. The slope is usually denoted by m is defined in
terms of the inclination as follows:
 DEFINITION 1 (Trigonometric): If L is a line of inclination, the slope of L,denoted by
m, is given by: m = tan
We can always find the slope of a line if we know
two points on it. To see this we consider the line passing
through the points P(2,1) and Q (5,3), as shown in Fig.36.
To find the slope of this line , draw a parallel to the x axis
through P and a parallel to the y axis through Q, forming
the right triangle PQR. The angle at P is equal to the
inclination, by corresponding angles of parallel lines. The
definition of tangent function in a right triangle is “opposite
over adjacent. The slope is therefore given by:
m = tan = = =
1.8. SLOPE OF A LINE. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
Suppose that P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) are any two
points in the plane and we wish to find the slope m of the
line passing through these two points. The procedure is
exactly the same as the one just described. In Fig. 37(a)
we see that: m = tan =
and in Fig.37(b)
m = tan = - tan (180 - ) = - =

 DEFINITION 2 (Algebraic): The slope m of a line L

through the Q (x2, y2) with x1 x2 is given by the
formula:
m = , slope =
1.8. SLOPE OF A LINE. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
If we think of a particle traveling along the line L from P(x1, y1) to Q(x2, y2), then the
particle will rise an amount y2 –y1 while running horizontally an amount x 2 – x1. We say,
intuitively, that the slope is the “rise” divided by the “run” or, more succinctly and in
slope =
Of course, if y2 – y1, is negative then the “rise” is actually a fall so the expression rise/run is
to be taken loosely.

EXAMPLE 1: Find the slope of the line through the points (4, - 2) and (7, 3).
EXAMPLE 2: Through the point P (4, 1) construct a line with slope equal to .
 THEOREM 7: Two parallel lines have the same slope. Conversely, two lines with the
same slope are parallel.
 THEOREM 8: Two lines are perpendicular if and only if their slopes are the negative
reciprocals of each other : .
1.8. SLOPE OF A LINE. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
EXAMPLE 3: Show that the line through P1(3, - 4) and Q1 (- 2, 6) is parallel to the line
through P2 ( -3, 6) and Q2 ( 9, -18 ).
EXAMPLE 4: Determine whether or not the three points P (-1, - 5), Q (1, 3) and
R ( 7, 12 ) lie on the same straight line.
EXAMPLE 5: Is the line through the points P1 (5, - 1) and Q1( - 3, 2 ) perpendicular to
the line through the points P2 ( - 3, 1) and Q2 ( 0, 9 )?

EXAMPLE 6: Given the isosceles triangle with vertices at the points

P(- 1, 4), Q ( 0, 1 ), and R (2, 5), show that the
median drawn from P is perpendicular to the base
QR (Fig.40).
1.9. THE STRAIGHT LINE.
Suppose that the line passes through a point denoted
P(x1,y1). To be specific, we consider the slope m to be – 2/3
and the point P to have coordinates (4, - 3). If a point Q (x ,y)
is on the line, then the slope as calculated from P to Q must
be - 2/3, as shown in Fig. 41. That is,

This is the equation of the line passing through the point (4, -
3) with slope – 2/3.
 THEOREM 9:(Point-Slope Formula for the Equation of a Line) Two equation of the
line passing through the point P(x1,y1) with slope m is : y – y1 = m (x – x1)
EXAMPLE 1: Find the equation of the line passing through the point (-2, 5) and having
slope 4/3.
 COROLLARY TO THEOREM 9: :(Two-Point Form for the Equation of Line). The
equation of the line passing through the two points P 1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) with x1 x2 is
given by : y – y1 =
1.9. THE STRAIGHT LINE.
Another variation of the point-slope form is obtained by introducing a number called the y
intercept. Every line not parallel to the y axis must intersect it; if we denote by (0, b) the
point of intersection, the number b is called the y intercept. Suppose a line has slope m and
y intercept b. We substitute in the point-slope form to get: y – b = m(x-0) or y = mx + b
This is called the slope-intercept form for the equation of a straight line.
EXAMPLE 2: A line has slope of 3 and y intercept – 4. Find its equation.
 THEOREM 10: Every equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, so long as A and B are not
both zero, is the equation of a straight line.
EXAMPLE 3: Given the linear equation: 3x + 2y + 6 = 0 find the slope and y – intercept.

EXAMPLE 4: Find the equation of the line which is the

perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the
points P (- 3, 2) and Q (5, 6). (See Fig.43)
11.1 POINTS, LINES AND ANGLES.
A first-degree equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, represents
a straight line which we denote by L. Suppose that P(x0, y0) is a point
not on the line. We construct the line through P(x0, y0) which is
perpendicular to L, and we consider the length of the line segment
extending from P to the point of intersection with L. See Fig.1.
DEFINITION: The distance from a point to a line is the length of the
perpendicular segment dropped from this point to the line.

 THEOREM 1: The distance d from the point P (x0, y0) to the line L whose equation is Ax +
By + C = 0 is given by the formula: d =

EXAMPLE 1: Find the distance d from the point (2, -1) to the line: 3x + 4y – 5 = 0.
DEFINITION: The distance between parallel lines is the shortest distance from any point on
one of the lines to the other line.
11.1 POINTS, LINES AND ANGLES.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the distance between the parallel lines:
L1: 2x - 3y + 7 = 0 and L2: 2x - 3y – 6 = 0
Two nonparallel lines L1 and L2 make four angles at their intersection: two equal
obtuse angles and two equal acute angles (unless the lines are perpendicular). The obtuse
angle is the supplement of the acute angle.
The angle swept out when the line L1 is rotated counterclockwise to L2 about the
point of intersection is called the angle from L 1 to L2. Let be the angle (measured in radians)
from L1 to L2 (see Fig.2.). Then clearly, the angle from L 2 to L1 is
Let L1 and L2, be two intersecting lines (neither of which is
vertical) with inclinations 1, and and slopes m1 = tan 1 and
m2 = tan , respectively. Let be the angle from L 1 to L2 and
suppose 1 < (See Fig. 3). Then, since the exterior angle of a
triangle is the sum of the remote interior angles, we have
interior angles:
= +, = -, tan = tan ( -)
11.1 POINTS, LINES AND ANGLES.
Using the formula for the tangent of the difference of two angles, we get:
tan =

In terms of slopes, we obtain: tan =

 THEOREM 2: Let L1 and L2 be two intersecting lines with

slopes m1 and m2, respectively. Then the tangent of the
angle from L1 and L2 is: tan =
EXAMPLE 3: Find the tangent of the angle from the line.
L1 = {(x, y): 2x + 3y = 5} to the line L 2 = {(x, y): 4x - 3y = 2}
EXAMPLE 4: Given the curve with equation y = 2x 2 – 3x – 4. Find the equations of the
lines tangent to the curve at the points where x=1 and x= 2. Find the tangent of
the angle between these two tangent lines.
EXAMPLE 5: Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines 3x +
4y – 7 = 0 and 4x + 3y + 2 = 0.
11.1 POINTS, LINES AND ANGLES.
EXAMPLE 4: Given the curve with equation y = 2x 2 – 3x
– 4. Find the equations of the lines tangent to the curve
at the points where x = 1 and x = 2. Find the tangent of
the angle between these two tangent lines.

EXAMPLE 5: Find the equations of the bisectors

of the angles formed by the lines 3x + 4y – 7 = 0
and 4x + 3y + 2 = 0. See Figure 5.
11.2 THE PARABOLA.
 DEFINITIONS: A parabola is the graph of all points whose distances from a fixed point
equal their distances from a fixed line. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed
line the directrix.
Figure 6 shows a typical situation. The line L is the directrix, the point F is the focus, and P,
Q, R, S are points which satisfy the conditions of the graph. That is,
|AP| = |PF|, |BQ| = |QF|, |CR| = |RF|, and |DS| = |SF|
The perpendicular to L through the focus intersects the parabola at a point v. This point is
called the vertex of the parabola.

Suppose that the distance from the focus F to

the directrix L is p units. We place the focus at
(p/2,0) and let the line L be x = - p/2, as shown
in Fig.7. If P(x, y) is a typical point on the
graph, the conditions are such that the
distance |PF| = is equal to the distance from P
to the line L.
11.2 THE PARABOLA.
The distance from P to the line L is | x – |.
=|x– |
(x - )2 + y2 = (x + )2
x2 – px + + y2 = x2 + px +

y2 = 2px, p>0
The equation of the parabola with focus at (p/2, 0) and with the line x = - p/2 as directrix.
The vertex of the parabola is at the origin. It is apparent from the equation that the x axis is
an axis of symmetry, for if y is replaced by -y, the equation is unchanged The line of
symmetry of a parabola is called the axis of the parabola.

There are four standard positions for the focus-directrix combination, of which the first has
just been described.
11.2 THE PARABOLA.
With p always positive number, the second standard position
is defined so that its focus is at (- p/2, 0) and the line x = p/2 is
its directrix. Using the same method as before, we solve the
problem which defines the parabola. We obtain the equation
and a parabola in the position shown in Fig.8.

y2 = - 2px, p>0
The third position has its focus at (0, p/2) and the line y = - p/2
as the directrix. The resulting equation is

x2 = 2py, p>0

and the parabola is in the position shown in Fig.9.

11.2 THE PARABOLA.
In the fourth standard position the focus is at (0, - p/2) and
the directrix is the line y = p/2. The equation then becomes

x2 = - 2py, p>0

and the parabola is in the position shown in Fig. 10. In all

four positions the vertex is at the origin.
EXAMPLE 1: A parabola is given by S = { (x, y): y2 = - 12x}. Find the focus, directrix and
axis. Sketch the graph.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the equation of the parabola with focus at F (3, 2) and with the line
x = - 4 as directrix. Locate the vertex and the axis of symmetry.

 THEOREM 3: If a parabola has an axis which is vertical or horizontal and has a vertex at
(a, b), then one of the following four equations has a graph which is the parabola
(with p > 0).
11.2 THE PARABOLA.
(i.) (y – b)2 = 2p (x – a), focus at (a + p/2, b); directrix, x = a – p/2
(ii.) (y – b)2 = - 2p (x – a), focus at (a - p/2, b); directrix, x = a + p/2
(iii.) (x – a)2 = 2p (y – b), focus at (a, b + p/2); directrix, y = b – p/2
(iv.) (x – a)2 = - 2p (y – b), focus at (a, b - p/2); directrix, y = b + p/2

EXAMPLE 3: Given the parabola x2 = - 4y – 3x + 2, find the vertex, focus, directrix, and
axis. Sketch the curve.
EXAMPLE 4: For every real number k the equation 3x + 2y – k = 0 is a straight line; if we
let l (k) = {(x, y): 3x + 2y – k = 0}, then the collection l (k) is called a family of lines : each
value of k gives a different line, and we note that all the lines are parallel. We wish to find
the particular member of this family which is tangent to the parabola.
S = { (x, y): y = 3x2 – 2x + 1 }.
EXAMPLE 5: Find the equation of the line tangent to the parabola
S = { (x, y): y2 – 3y – 2x + 4 }, at the point on the parabola at which y = 2.
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
 DEFINITIONS: A circle is the set of all points which are at a given, fixed distance from a
chosen point. The chosen point is the center of the circle.
THEOREM 4: The equation of a circle with center at (h, k) and radius r is :
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
EXAMPLE 1: Find the equation of the circle with center at (- 3, 4) and radius 6.
EXAMPLE 2: Determine whether or not the equation x 2 + y2 – 4x + 7y – 8 = 0 represents a
circle. If it does, where is the center and what is the radius?
A line tangent to a circle is defined in the usual way by the methods of calculus. A
line perpendicular to a radius and passing through the point where the radius meets the
circle is tangent to the circle at this point.
EXAMPLE 3: The point (1, 2) is on the circle : x 2 + y2 + 2x + 3y – 13 = 0 which is verified
by substitution of x = 1, y = 2 into the equation. We pose the problem of finding the
equation of the line tangent to the circle at the point (1, 2).
EXAMPLE 4: A tangent is drawn from P (8, 4) to the circle K given by :
K = {(x, y): x2 + y2 + 2x + y – 3 = 0}. Find the distance from P to the point of tangency Q.
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
A problem that often arises in physics is that of computing the
distance from a point P outside a circle to a point Q on the circle
and such that the line through P and Q is tangent to the circle (see
Fig. 17). Let P (x1, y1) be a point outside the circle K which has its
center at C (h, k) and has radius r. In set notation, we may write:
K = {(x, y): (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 – r2 = 0}
A tangent from P to the circle has contact at a point Q. Since
triangle PQC is a right triangle, we see that |PQ| = and using the
distance formula for the length |PC|, we have
|PQ| =
From the procedure for completing the square, it follows that if having equation x2 + y2 + Dx
+ Ey + F = 0 has center at (h,k) and radius r > 0 then
(x-h)2 + (y-k)2 – r2 = x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Hence if the circle in Fig. 17 has the equation (2), then the formula for |PQ|, the distance we
seek, is given by: |PQ| =
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
 DEFINITIONS: An ellipse is the graph of all points of whose distances from two fixed
points is constant. The two fixed points are called the foci.
Suppose that the distance between the foci is
2c (c > 0). We place the foci label them F 1 and F2 at
convenient points, say F1 at (c, 0) and F2 at ( - c, 0).
Let P(x, y) be a point on the ellipse, d1 the distance
from P to F1, and d2 the distance from P to F2 (Fig.
18). The conditions state that d1 + d2 is always
constant. As we said, this constant (which we shall
denote by 2a) must be larger than 2c. Thus we have
d1 + d2 = 2a , or, from the distance formula,
+
We simplify by transferring one radical to the ¿
right and squaring both sides:
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
+

By multiplying out and combining, we obtain: =a+

We square again to find: = + and this becomes:

Since a > c, we can introduce a new quantity, b = and we can write:

This is the equation of an ellipse.

 DEFINITIONS: The line passing through the two foci

F1 and F2 is called the major axis. The perpendicular
bisector of the line segment F1F2 is called the minor
axis. The intersection of the major and minor axes is
called the center.
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
The equation of the ellipse as we have obtained it indicates that the ellipse intersects
the x axis at (a, 0), (-a, 0).These points are called the vertices of the ellipse. The distance
between them, 2a, is called the length of the major axis. (Sometimes this segment is
called simply the major axis.) The ellipse intersects the y axis at (0, b) and (0, - b). The
distance between them, 2b, is called the length of the minor axis. (Sometimes this
segment is called the minor axis.)
The eccentricity e of an ellipse is defined as: e = c/a
Note that since c < a, the eccentricity is always between 0 and 1.
The eccentricity measures the flatness of an ellipse. If a is kept
fixed and c is very "small," then e is close to zero. But this means
that the foci are close together, and the ellipse is almost a circle, as
in Fig. 20. On the other hand, if c its close to a, then e is near 1
and the ellipse is quite flat, as shown in Fig.21. The limiting
position of an ellipse as e0 is a circle of radius a. The/limiting
position as e 1 is a line segment of length 2a.
11.3 The Circle and The Ellipse
In developing the equation of an ellipse we placed the foci at
(c,0) and ( -c,0). If instead we put them on the y axis at (0, c)
and (0, -c) and carry through the same argument, then the
equation of the ellipse we obtain is:

The y axis is now the major axis, the x axis is the minor axis,
and the vertices are at (0, a) and (0, -a); The quantity
b = and the eccentricity e = c/a are defined as before. Figure 22
shows an ellipse with foci on the y axis.
EXAMPLE 5: Given the ellipse with equation 9x 2 + 25y2 = 225, find the major and minor
axes, the eccentricity, the coordinates of the foci and the vertices. Sketch the ellipse.
EXAMPLE 6: Given the ellipse with equation 16x 2 + 9y2 = 144,find the major and minor axes,
the eccentricity, the coordinates of the foci, and the vertices. Sketch the ellipse.
EXAMPLE 7: Find the equation of the line tangent to the ellipse :
at the point ( 2, )
11.4 The Hyperbola
 DEFINITIONS: A hyperbola is the graph of all points the difference of whose distances
from two fixed points is a positive constant. The two fixed points are called the foci.
Notice that the geometric definition of a hyperbola is similar to that of aa ellipse. For the
hyperbola we take the difference of distances from two fixed points, instead of the sum.
 THEOREM 5: A hyperbola with foci at (-c, 0) and (c, 0) has an equation of the form:
where a2 + b2 = c2. Moreover the graph of any equation of the form is a
hyperbola with foci at (-c, 0) and (c, 0).
The equation of the hyperbola in the above form shows at once that it is symmetric with
respect to both the x axis and the y axis.

 DEFINITIONS: The line passing through the foci F1 and F2 of a hyperbola is called the
transverse axis. The perpendicular bisector of the segment F 1F2, is called the
Conjugate axis. The intersection of these axes is called the center.
11.4 The Hyperbola
(See Fig. 27, where the foci are at (c,0) and (-c,0), the transverse axis is the x axis, the
conjugate axis is the y axis, and the center is at the origin.) The points of intersection of a
hyperbola with the transverse axis are called its vertices. In Fig. 27, corresponding to the
equation: these vertices occur at (a, 0) and (-a, 0). The length 2a is called the length of the
transverse axis. Even though the points (0, b) and (0, -b) are not on the graph, the length
2b is a useful quantity. It is called the length of the conjugate axis.
The eccentricity of a hyperbola is defined as : e = c/a

Note that since c > a, the eccentricity of a

hyperbola is always larger than 1.
If the foci of the hyperbola are placed along the y
axis at the points (0, c) and (0, -c), the equation takes the
form: where, as before, b =
11.4 The Hyperbola
Note that since c > a, the eccentricity of a
hyperbola is always larger than 1.
If the foci of the hyperbola are placed along the y
axis at the points (0, c) and (0, -c), the equation takes the
form: where, as before, b =

An equation of the form

always has its transverse

axis (and foci) on the x axis,

always has its transverse

axis (and foci) on the y axis.
11.4 The Hyperbola
EXAMPLE 1: Given the hyperbola with equation 9x 2 - 16y2 = 144. Find the axes, the
coordinates of the vertices and the foci, and the eccentricity. Sketch the curve.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices at (0, 6) and eccentricity
Locate the foci.

EXAMPLE 3: Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the hyperbola
at the point (5, ).

We define the line as an asymptote of the hyperbola .

Analogously, the line (see Fig. 30) is called an asymptote of the
same hyperbola.
Now we can see one of the uses of the central rectangle.
The asymptotes are the lines which contain the diagonals of the
central rectangle.
 11.4 The Hyperbola
ln an analogous way the hyperbola has the asymptotes and These lines contain the
diagonals of the appropriately constructed central rectangle.

EXAMPLE 4: Given the hyperbola 25x2 - 9y2 = 225, find the foci vertices, eccentricity, and
asymptotes. Sketch the curve.
An easy way to remember the equations of the asymptotes is to recognize that if the
hyperbola is:
the asymptotes are

and if the hyperbola is

the asymptotes are

11.5 Translation of Axes
When we use the method of coordinate geometry we place the axes at a position
"convenient' with respect to the curve under consideration. In the examples of ellipses and
hyperbolas we studied, the foci were located on one of the axes and were situated
symmetrically with respect to the origin. But now suppose that we have a problem in which
the curve (hyperbola, parabola, ellipse, etc.) is not situated so conveniently with respect to
the axes. we would then like to change the coordinate system in order to have the curve at a
convenient and familiar location. The process of making this change is called a
transformation of coordinates.
The first type of transformation we consider is one of
the simplest, and is called the translation of axes. Figure 33
shows the usual rectangular xy coordinate system. We now
introduce an additional coordinate system with axis x'
parallel to x and k units away, and axis y’ parallel to y and h
units away.
 11.5 Translation of Axes
This means that the origin O’ of the new coordinate system has coordinates (h, k) in the
original system. The positive x’ and y’ directions are taken to be the same as the positive x
and y directions. When P is any point in the plane, what are its coordinates in each of the
systems? Suppose that P has coordinates (x, y) in the original system and (x’, y’) in the new
system and suppose that the new origin has coordinates (h, k) in the original system. An
inspection of Fig. 34 suggests that if x > h > 0 and y > k > 0, then

The proof of these formulas follows at once by

subtraction of the appropriate directed distances shown in
Fig. 35. See Problem 29 at the end of
the section.
11.5 Translation of Axes
11.5 Translation of Axes
EXAMPLE 1: Given the equation 9x2 + 25y2 + 18x - 100y – 116 = 0 by using a translation of
axes determine whether the graph is a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola. Determine foci (or
focus), vertices (or vertex), the eccentricity. Sketch the curve.
EXAMPLE 2: Discuss the properties of the graph of the equation x 2 + 4x + 4y – 4 = 0.

EXAMPLE 3: Find the equation of the ellipse with eccentricity ½ and foci at (4, 2) and (2, 2).

 THEOREM 6: (a) If A and C are both positive or both negative, then the graph is an
ellipse, a circle (if A = C), a point, or nothing. (b) If A and C are of opposite signs, the
graph is a hyperbola or two intersecting lines. (c) If either A or C is zero, the graph is a
parabola, two parallel lines, one line, or nothing.
END OF SLIDES !!!!