Electric Circuits

Introduction

Dr .Ziyad Tarawneh
Text books

Robert L. Boylestad, (2007). Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th Edition.

.Prentice-Hall Int, Inc. 0-13-173044-4

Charles K Alexander , Matthew Sadiku (2007). Fundamentals of Electric

.Circuits. 4th Edition.-McGraw-Hill, Inc. 0–07–352955–9
 Topics to be Discussed
Voltage and Current

Resistance

Ohm’s Law, Power and Energy

Series dc Circuits, Parallel dc Circuits

Serial-Parallel Circuits
 Topics to be Discussed

Methods of Analysis and Selected Topics (dc)

Network Theorems
Capacitors, Inductors
Ac circuits
AC power, Phasors

Note : This is just an outline and may change as the semester progresses
 Voltage and Current

Dr .Ziyad Tarawneh
Atoms and Their Structure

Nucleus •
Protons –
Electrons –
Neutrons –

 Shells and subshells of the atomic structure

 Free electrons
 Conductors

Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a small amount of energy to free them for
conduction
…Let’s apply a potential difference across the conductor above
The force on each electron is enough to free it from its orbit and it can jump
from atom to atom – the conductor conducts
Conductors are said to have a low resistivity / resistance
 Insulators

Insulators have tightly bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a very large amount of energy to free
them for conduction
…Let’s apply a potential difference across the insulator above
The force on each electron is not enough to free it from its orbit
and the insulator does not conduct
Insulators are said to have a high resistivity / resistance
 Conductors and Insulators

• Conductors are those materials that permit a generous flow of electrons with
very little external force (voltage) applied
In addition,
• Good conductors typically have only one electron in the valance (most distant
from the nucleus) ring.
 Conductors and Insulators
• Insulators are those materials that have very few free electrons and require a
large applied potential (voltage) to establish a measurable current level
• Insulators are commonly used as covering for current-carrying wire, which, if
uninsulated, could cause dangerous side effects
• Rubber gloves and rubber mats are used to help insulated workers when
working on power lines
• Even the best insulator will break down if a sufficiently large potential is
applied across it
 Conductors and Insulators
• The relative conductivity of various materials

• breakdown strength of some common insulators

 Semiconductors

• Semiconductors are a specific group of elements that exhibit

characteristics between those of insulators and conductors
• Semiconductor materials typically have four electrons in the
outermost valence ring
• Semiconductors are further characterized as being
photoconductive and having a negative temperature coefficient
– Photoconductivity: Photons from incident light can increase the carrier
density in the material and thereby the charge flow level
– Negative temperature coefficient: Resistance will decrease with an increase
in temperature (opposite to that of most conductors)
 Electric Charge

The charge of an electron and that of a proton are equal in magnitude. Electrical charge is an electrical
property of matter that exists because of an excess or deficiency of electrons, which is symbolized by Q.

Attraction and Repulsion of Electric Charges

Electric Field between two Oppositely Charged Surfaces

 Electric Charge
Electrical charge is measured in coulombs, symbolized by C. one coulomb is the total
charge possessed by 6.25 1018 electrons.

 19
A single electron has a charge of 1.6 10 C.

The total charge , expressed in coulombs, for a given number of electrons is stated in the
following formula:

number of electrons
Q 18
6.25 10 electrons / C
1. How many coulombs do 93.8 1016 electrons present?
2. How many electrons does it take to have 3 C of charge?
3. How much charge, in coulombs, is there in 10 1012 electrons?

number of electrons 93.8 1016 electrons

Q 18
 18
0.15 C
6.25 10 electrons / C 6.25 10 electrons / C
2

number of electrons Q 6.25 1018 electrons / C 3 C 6.25 1018 electrons / C

1.875 1019 electrons

number of electrons 10 1012 electrons 6

Q 18
 18
1.6 10 C
6.25 10 electrons / C 6.25 10 electrons / C
 Voltage
• Voltage, symbolized by V, is defined as energy or work per unit charge:
W  Energy in Joules  J 
V Voltage in Volts V  
Q Charge in Coulombs C 

• One volt is the potential difference (Voltage) between two points when one
joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to
another. Potential difference between two points is determined by: V =
W/Q (volts)
 Voltage

• A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between two points if 1 joule (J) of
energy is exchanged in moving 1 coulomb (C) of charge between the two points
• The unit of measurement volt was chosen to honor Alessandro Volta
Example

Example

Example
 Voltage
• Notations for sources of voltage and loss of potential
– E - Voltage sources (volts)
– V - Voltage drops (volts)
• Potential – The voltage at a point with respect to another point in the electrical
system. Typically the reference point is the ground, which is at zero potential.
Current
• The free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire or any other solid
conductor of electricity
• With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in a conductor in any
one direction is zero
• Basic electric circuit
 Electric Current

• Random motion of free electrons in a material

• Electrons Flow from Negative to Positive when a Voltage is

Applied Across a Conductive or Semi conductive Material
 Electric Current

The movement of these free electrons from the negative end of the material to the •
.positive end is the electric current, symbolized by I
electrical current is the rate of flow of charge. Current in a conductive material is •
determined by the number of electrons (amount of charge) that flow past a point in
.a unit of time

Q Charge in Coulombs C 
I Current in Amperes  A  
t Time in Seconds s 

One ampere is the amount of current that exists when a number of electrons having •
a total charge of one coulomb move through a given cross sectional area in one
. second
Current

Example
 Example

Example

Example
A conductor has a constant current of five amperes. How many electrons pass a fixed point on the conductor
in one minute?

Q C  Q C  number of electrons
I  A   5 A 5 C / s  Q C  300C 
t s  60 s 6.25 1018 electrons / C
Number of Electrons 300 C 6.25 1018 electrons / C 1.875 10 21 electrons
 Current
• Safety considerations
» Even small levels of current through the human body can
cause serious, dangerous side effects
• Any current over 10 mA is considered dangerous
– currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock
– currents over 100 mA can be fatal
–
– Treat electricity with respect – not fear
 Voltage Sources
• An ideal voltage source can provide a constant voltage for any current required by
a circuit. It does not exist but can be approximated in practice. Voltage source is
assumed to be ideal unless otherwise specified.
• Voltage source can be either DC or AC. A common symbol for voltage sources.

• dc Voltage sources
– Batteries (chemical action)
– Generators (electromechanical)
– Power supplies (rectification)
 Voltage Sources

• Batteries: combination of two or more similar cells

– A cell being a fundamental source of electrical energy developed through
the conversion of chemical or solar energy
– All cells are divided into Primary and Secondary types
• Primary type is not rechargeable
• Secondary is rechargeable; the cell can be reversed to restore its capacity
• Two most common rechargeable batteries are the lead-acid unit (primarily automotive)
and the nickel-cadmium (calculators, tools, photoflash units and shavers)
 Voltage Sources
• Each cell establishes a potential difference at the
expense of chemical energy and each has the
following components:
– Positive electrode
– Negative electrode
– Electrolyte (the contact element and the source of ions for
conduction between terminals)
 Voltage Sources
• dc – Direct current
– Unidirectional (“one direction”) flow of charge
– Supplies that provide a fixed voltage or current
Primary Cells
 Voltage Sources
• Alkaline primary cells
– Powered zinc anode (+)
– Potassium (alkali metal) electrolyte
– Manganese dioxide, carbon cathode (–)
 Voltage Sources
• Lead-acid secondary cell
– Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte
– The electrodes are spongy lead (Pb) and lead peroxide (Pb0 2)
 Voltage Sources

• Nickel-cadmium secondary cell

– Rechargeable battery (Capable of 1,000 charge/discharge cycles)
– charged by a constant current source
• Nickel-hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells
– Nickel-hydrogen cell currently limited primarily to space vehicles
– Nickel-metal hydride cell is actually a hybrid of the nickel-cadmium and
nickel-hydrogen cell – Expensive, but it is a valid option for applications
such as portable computers
 Voltage Sources

– Solar cell
• A fixed illumination of the solar cell will provide a fairly steady dc
voltage for driving loads from watches to automobiles
• Conversion efficiencies are currently between 10% and 14%
 Voltage Sources
• Generators
– Voltage and power-handling capabilities of the dc generator are
typically higher than those of most batteries, and its lifetime is
determined only by its construction
Power supplies
– The dc supply encountered most frequently in the laboratory
employs the rectification and filtering processes as its means toward
obtaining a steady dc voltage
 dc Current sources
• dc Current sources
– The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed current to an
electrical/electronic system, even though there may be
variations in the terminal voltage as determined by the system.

– An ideal current source can provide a constant current in any

load
 Voltage Sources

• Ampere-hour rating
– Batteries have a capacity rating in ampere-hours
– A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide a
steady current of 1A for 100 h, 2A for 50 h or 10A for 10 h
– Factors affecting the rating: rate of discharge and temperature
• The capacity of a dc battery decreases with an increase in the current demand
• The capacity of a dc battery decreases at relatively (compared to room
temperature) low and high temperatures
Example

Example
 BATTERY LIFE FACTORS

(capacity) versus drain current

the capacity of a battery (in ampere-hours) will change with

change
in current demand.

Ampere-hour rating (capacity) versus

temperature

Ampere-hour rating (capacity) versus

temperature for an Energizer® D cell.
Terminal voltage versus discharge time for specific drain currents for an Energizer® D
cell

The terminal voltage of a battery will eventually drop (at any level of current drain) if
the time period of continuous discharge is too long.
 Ammeters and Voltmeters
• Ammeter (Milliammeter or Microammeter)
– Used to measure current levels
– Must be placed in the network such that the charge will flow through
the meter
• Voltmeter
– Used to measure the potential difference between two points
Ammeters and Voltmeters

– Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) and digital multimeter (DMM)

• Both instruments will measure voltage and current and a third quantity,
resistance
• The VOM uses an analog scale, which requires interpreting the position of the
pointer on a continuous scale
• The DMM provides a display of numbers with decimal point accuracy
determined by the chosen scale.
Applications
• Flashlight
– Simplest of electrical circuits
– Batteries are connected in series to provide a higher voltage (sum of
the battery voltages)
Applications

• 12-V Car battery charger

– Used to convert 120-V ac outlet power to dc charging power for a 12-
V automotive battery, using a transformer to step down the voltage,
diodes to rectify the ac (convert it to dc), and in some cases a regulator
to provide a dc voltage that varies with level of charge.
Applications

• Answering machines/Phones dc
supply
– A wide variety of devices receive
their dc operating voltage from an
ac/dc conversion system
– The conversion system uses a
transformer to step the voltage
down to the appropriate level, then
diodes “rectify” the ac to dc, and
capacitors provide filtering to
smooth out the dc.