I.

Identify whether the following is narrative or

parenthetical citation. If the citation is
parenthetical, make it narrative. If the citation is
narrative, make it parenthetical using correct
punctuation marks.
1. According to Jacobs and Yong (2004), the
features of text types can be categorized into
organizational structure and language
features.
2. Understanding the structure of different text
types is considered essential for effective
3. One view on the reading process that has emerged
is that schema significantly influences how readers
approach a text (Graves, Juel & Graves, 1998).
4. The phenomenon was attributed by some scholars
to high-achieving students’ tendency to be realistic
(Falchikov & Boud, 2009).
5. In the same way, Lei (2009) investigated the
effects of discourse types on college students’
reading strategy use during their L2 English reading.
II. Arrange the following entries to form a reference.
Use correct punctuation marks.

1. 2016
Barrot, J.
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher
ESL learners’ use of reading strategies across
different text types
II. Arrange the following entries to form a reference.
Use correct punctuation marks.

2. Student self-assessment in higher education: A

meta-analysis
Review of Educational Research
Falchinov, N. & Boud, D.
2009
03
THEORETICA
L
FRAMEWOR
K
What is a Theoretical Framework?
It is the ‘blueprint’ or guide for a research. It is a framework
based on an existing theory in a field of inquiry that is related to
the study. It is a blueprint that is often ‘borrowed’ by the
researcher to build his/her own research inquiry. It serves as the
foundation upon which a research is constructed.
(Grant & Osanloo, 2014)
DEVELOPING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
(Vinz, 2015)

Theories are developed by researchers to explain By “framing” your research within a clearly
phenomena, draw connectionsand make defined field, you make the reader aware of the
predictions. In the theoretical framework, you assumptions that inform your approach, showing
explain the theories that support your research, the rationale behind your choices.
showing that your work is grounded in
established ideas. The adoption and adaptation of a theory must
In a thesis or dissertation, the theoretical reflect the understanding of the researcher
framework is sometimes integrated into a literature regarding the study and must drive the study
review chapter, but it can also be included as its (Simon & Goes, 2011).
own chapter or section
Your problem statement, research questions and
There are no fixed rules for structuring a literature review will serve as the basis for
theoretical framework. The important thing is to preparing your theoretical framework.
create a clear, logical structure.

As in all other parts of your thesis, make sure to

properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism.
SEARCH FOR THEORIES RELATED
TO YOUR CHOSEN RESEARCH
TOPIC

Let’s practice
04
CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
What is a Conceptual Framework?
The conceptual framework presents an integrated way of looking at a problem under
study. In a statistical perspective, the conceptual framework describes the relationship
between the main concepts of a study. A conceptual framework can be graphical or in
a narrative form showing the key variables to be studied and the presumed
relationships between them.

(Liehr & Smith, 1999; Miles and Huberman, 1994)

DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

A conceptual framework illustrates what you Before you start collecting data, construct a
expect to find through your research. It conceptual framework to show exactly which variables
defines the relevant variables for your study you will measure and how you expect them to relate
and maps out how they might relate to each to each other.
other.
A conceptual framework can be designed in many
You should construct a conceptual framework different ways. The form yours takes will depend on
before you begin collecting data. It is often what kinds of relationships you expect to find.
represented in a visual format.
DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

Independent and Dependent variables

To test a cause-and-effect relationship, we need to ü To visualize our expected cause-and-effect relationship,

identify at least two key variables: IV & DV Example use the basic design components of boxes and arrows.
IV: hours of study – expected cause (aka the ü Each variable appears in a box.
predictor or explanatory variable). ü To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow should start
DV: exam score – expected effect (aka the response from the IV (the cause) and point to the DV (the effect).
or outcome variable).

In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of Independent Dependent

study.” Our hypothesis is that the more hours a student Variable Variable
studies, the better they will do on the exam.
Hours of Exam
Causal relationships often involve several independent
Study Score
variables that affect the dependent variable. However,
to keep things simple, we’ll work with just one
independent variable, namely “hours of study.”
DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

IV, DV, and Moderating Variable

Independent Dependent
Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a moderating Variable Variable
variable (aka a moderator). A moderator alters the effect that an
independent variable has on a dependent variable. Hours of Exam
The moderator thus changes the effect component of the cause- Study Score
and-effect relationship. This moderation is also referred to as
the interaction effect.

In our example, we expect that the number of hours a student Moderating

studies is related to their exam score: the more you prepare, the Variable
higher your score will be.
Now we add the moderator “IQ.” A student’s IQ level changes IQ
the effect that the variable “hours of study” has on the exam
score:
the higher your IQ, the fewer hours of study you must put in to In short, a moderating variable
do well on the exam. is something that changes the cause-and-effect relationship
between two variables as its value increases or decreases.
In other words, the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the The higher the IQ, the fewer
number of study hours has on the exam score. hours a student needs to study in order to achieve a score of
100%.
DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

IV, DV, and Mediating Variable

Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a mediating The mediating variable of “number of practice problems
variable. In a cause-and-effect relationship, a mediating variable
completed” comes between the independent and dependent
is a variable that links the independent and dependent
variables. The hours of study impacts the number of practice
variables,allowing the relationship between them to be better
problems, which in turn impacts the exam score.
explained.
In this case, the mediator helps explain why studying more
leads
hours to a higher exam score. The more hours a student studies,
Independent Dependent the more practice problems they will complete; the more practice
Variable Variable problems completed, the higher the student’s exam score will be.
Hours of Exam
Study Score By adding the mediating variable of “number of practice problems
completed,” will help explain the cause-and-effect relationship
between the two main variables.

Mediator Variable
Number of practice
Problems
completed
DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

MODERATOR VARIABLE VS MEDIATOR

VARIABLE
A moderating variable is not affected by A mediating variable is affected by the
the independent variable, even though it independent variable, and it affects
affects the dependent variable. For the dependent variable. Therefore, it links
example, no matter how many hours you the two variables and helps
study (the independent variable), your IQ explain the relationship between them.
will not get higher.

ICAcosta 30.01.2021
DEVELOPING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Swaen, 2015)

IV, DV, and Control Variable

To test a cause-and-effect relationship, we also need Control Variable

to consider other variables that we’re not interested in Health
measuring the effects of, but that could potentially
impact students’ exam scores.
Independent Dependent
These are control variables—variables that are held Variable Variable
constant so that they don’t interfere with the results. Hours of Exam
Study Score
For example, it is likely that if a student feels ill, they
will get a lower score on the exam. Therefore, we’ll That means we should keep the variable “health” constant in
add “health” as a control variable. our study—we’ll only include participants who are in good
health on the day of the exam.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
It provides a general or broader set of ideas within which a study It refers to specific or narrower ideas a researcher utilizes in
belongs. his/her study.

It is based on existing theory/theories in the literature which has It is based on the concepts which are the main variables in a study.
been tested and validated by other scholars.

It is in the form of a model that pivots a study, with its exponents It is a researcher's own constructed model that s/he uses to
and the results of their studies. explain the relationship that exists between the main variables in
his/her study.
It can also be an adaptation of a model in an existing theory which
a researcher adapts to suit his/her research purpose.

It is well developed, designed and accepted. Its design is not accepted, but it's a proposal of the researcher's
answer to the research problem s/he has defined.
It offers a focal point for approaching the unknown research in a It is the framework that shows logically how the research inquiry is
specific field of inquiry. to be undertaken.

It consists of theories that seem interrelated with their propositions It consists of concepts interconnected to explain the relationships
deduced. between them and how the researcher asserts to answer the
research problem defined.

It is used to test theories, to predict and control the situations It is aimed at encouraging the development of a theory that would
within the context of a research inquiry. be useful to practitioners in the field.

Author’s Constructs
The position of conceptual framework in research

The conceptual framework is mostly placed in the chapter where the

literature survey was discussed. It is in this chapter that the theoretical
perspectives of the main variables or constructs are rigorously
reviewed. In most dissertation or thesis papers, the literature survey is
discussed in chapter two.
05DEVELOPING
THE
RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The term “research Data collection involve using an instrument.

instrument” refers to any tool • What instrument will you use to collect your data?
that is used by a scientist to
obtain, measure, and • Do you find one to use or develop one yourself?
analyze data. The data is • Ifinstrument?
you search for one to use, how will you locate this
sourced from subjects
included in the research • Once you find the instrument, what criteria will you
experiment and focused on use
the topic. to determine if it is a good instrument to use?
Three options exist for obtaining a n instrument to use:
(Creswell, 2012)

LOCATE
Of these 3 choices, locating one to use
DEVELOP
(either modifying it or using it in its original An instrument to measure the variables in
form) represents the easiest approach. your study may not be available in the
literature or commercially, the researcher
develops his/her own instrument.

Developing an instrument consists of several

MODIFY steps, such as identifying the purpose of the
instrument, reviewing the literature, writing
Modifying an instrument means locating an the questions, and testing the questions with
existing instrument, obtaining permission to individuals similar to those you plan to study.
change it, and making changes in it to fit
your requirements.
SEARCH FOR AN INSTRUMENT
Creswell, 2012

Look in published journal articles

• Often authors of journal articles will report instruments and provide a few sample
items so
that you can see the basic content included in the instrument.
• Examine references in published journal articles that cite specific instruments and
contact
the authors for inspection copies.
• Before you use the instrument, seek permission from the author. With limited space
in
journals, authors are including fewer examples of their items or copies of their instruments.

Run an ERIC search (Educational Resources Information Center)

https://eric.ed.gov/

• Use the term instruments and the topic of the study to search the ERIC system for
instruments.
• Use the online search process of the ERIC data-base.
• Use the same search procedure to locate abstracts to articles where the authors
mention
instruments that they have used in their studies.
CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING
A GOOD INSTRUMENT
Obtain the most recent version of the Are reviews available for the instrument?
instrument Look for published reviews about the instrument. If
With knowledge expanding in educational reviews exist, it means that other researchers have taken
research, instruments over 5 years old might be the instrument seriously and seek to document its worth.
outdated. To stay current, authors update their
instruments periodically, and you need to find
the most recent copy of an instrument.
Is there information about the reliability and validity of
Is the instrument widely cited by other authors? scores from past uses of the instrument?
Frequent use by other researchers will provide Does the procedure for recording data fit the research
some indication of its endorsement by others. Use questions/hypotheses in your study?
by other researchers may provide some evidence Does the instrument contain accepted scales of
about whether the questions on the instrument measurement?
provide good and consistent measures.

ICAcosta 30.01.2021
RELIABILITY & VALIDITY

(Creswell, 2012)
Developing an Instrument

Developing an instrument consists of several steps, such as

• identifying the purpose of the instrument,
• reviewing the literature,
• writing the questions, and
• testing the questions with individuals similar to those you plan to study.

In this process, the basic steps consist of

The statistical procedures of calculating reliability
• reviewing the literature,
and item analysis are available in computer
• presenting general questions to a target software programs.
group,
• constructing questions for the item pool, and
• pilot testing the items.
STEPS DEVELOPING AN INSTRUMENT
Phase 1: Planning State the purpose of the test and target groups

Phase 2: Construction Develop table of specifications and write pool items

Phase 3: Evaluation Prepare instrument for pilot test, calculate reliability

Phase 4: Validation Run item analysis

Developing a questionnaire using a matrix
One technique in developing a research questionnaire is to relate the variables,
research questions, and items on survey.
Variables Reseach Question Item on Survey

Control Variable: Tenure Is the faculty tenured? Employment Status

Which of the following categories best describes your
employment status?
• Tenured
• Non-tenured

Independent Variable: Number of How many publications did the faculty Publication Counts
Publications member produce in the past five years? Journal Articles, Books, Conference Papers, Book
Chapters

Dependent Variable: Grant Received How many grants has the faculty member Grants Received
received in the past five years? Grants from foundations, University grants, federal
grants, state grants
Let’s practice

TOPIC: The effect of the number of hours of sleep and taking multivitamins on
student’s achievement.
Variables Reseach Question Item on Survey

Demographic Profile

Independent Variable: Number of hours

of sleep

Independent Variable: Taking

multivitamins

Dependent Variable: Student

achievement
RELIABILITY & VALIDITY
Reliability means that scores from an instrument
are stable and consistent. Several factors can result in unreliable data, including
Scores should be nearly the same when researchers when:
administer the instrument multiple times at different • Questions on instruments are ambiguous and unclear
times. • Procedures of test administration vary and are not
Scores need to be consistent. When an individual standardized
answers certain questions one way, the individual
• Participants are fatigued, are nervous, misinterpret
should consistently answer closely related questions
questions,
in the same way
or guess on tests (Rudner, 1993)

Validity is the development of sound evidence to

demonstrate that the test interpretation (of scores
about the concept or construct that the test is
assumed to measure) matches its proposed used.

ICAcosta 30.01.2021
TYPES OF RELIABILITY

ICAcosta 30.01.2021
PRE-TESTING & PILOT TESTING
The dress rehearsal of survey administration and
Procedures (Rothgeb, 2008).

PRE-TEST PILOT TEST

A pre-test is a critical examination of the survey A pilot test is a trial run of the entire study from start
instrument that will help determine if the survey will to finish that increases likelihood of success for the
function properly as a valid and reliable research tool main study. Pilot tests are conducted to test the
(Converse & Presser, 1986). entire research process, usually from a
methodological standpoint (e.g. sampling and
- Pinpoint problem areas recruitment strategies, administration, data collection
- Reduce measurement error and analysis) in actual field conditions.
- Reduce respondent burden
- Determine whether respondents are interpreting Once pilot testing is complete, final revisions to the
the questions correctly survey process can be made and the survey is
- Ensure that the respondents are not influencing ready for full scale administration.
the (Sage Publication, 2016)
way the respondents answer
PRE-TESTING & PILOT TESTING
HOW MANY PARTICIPANTS ARE REQUIRED?

PRE-TESTING PILOT TESTING

You should aim to pretest your survey A general rule of thumb is to pilot test the survey
questionnaire with at least 5-10 people of your on 30 to 100 participants. However this number
target group. will vary dependning on the number of respondents
on the entire sample.
Small samples (5–15 participants) that are (Courtenay, 1978)
common in pre-tests of questionnaires may fail to
uncover even common problems. A default sample
size of 30 participants is recommended.

(Perneger, Courvoisier, Hudelson, et al., 2015)

VALIDITY
In addition to reliability, you should examine whether the scores from the
instrument (not the instrument itself) are valid. As a researcher, here are
the steps you will likely employ:

• Identify an instrument (or test) that you would like to use.

• Look for evidence of validity by examining prior studies that have
reported scores
and use of the instrument.
• Look closely at the purpose for which the instrument was used in
these studies.
• Look as well at how the researchers have interpreted the scores in
light of their
intended use.
• Evaluate whether the authors provide good evidence that links their
interpretation
to their use.

ICAcosta 30.01.2021
 RULES FOR
WRITING
SURVEY
ITEMS
 Rule of 9
1. Keep it simple.
RULES 2. Avoid double-barreled items.
FOR 3. Use neutral or unbiased language.
4. Minimize the use of negative wording.
WRITIN 5. Avoid the response set pitfall.
6. Use rating scales consistently.
G 7. Limit the points on a rating scale.
SURVE 8.
9.
Label or anchor the rating scale points.
Minimize survey length
Y Privitera, Sage Publication

ITEM
S
1. Keep it Simple 2. Avoid double-barreled items
• Use simple words or language in a survey. • Double-barreled items are survey items that ask
• Everyone who takes a survey should be able to participants for one response to two different
understand it. The best strategy is to use less questions or statements.
than a high school–level vocabulary in writing • For example, to study relationship satisfaction
the survey items. we could ask participants to indicate their level
• Use this strategy to make sure that participants’ of agreement with the following statement
responses reflect their actual responses and are
not given because they are confused about
what the question is asking.

For example, you could have participants rate how

full they feel by asking, “How sated do you feel?”
However, some participants may not know that
satiated means to satisfy an appetite, so it would • This item for relationship satisfaction is double-
be better to plainly ask, “How full do you feel?” barreled.
• The solution is to split the question into
In sum, keep the language simple. separate items to allow participants to give a
separate response to each individual item.
3. Use neutral or unbiased
language

APA Guidelines for

Appropriate Language
Bias-free language is covered
in Chapter 5 of the APA
Publication Manual, Seventh
Edition
Examples of potentially biased statements

Rewrite: “Do you think the voting age should be lowered to 16?”

Rewrite: “Do you think the city should allow expansion of the
Northern Industrial Park?”
4. Minimize the use of negative 5. Avoid the response set pitfall
wording
• A response set is the tendency for participants to
• The use of negative wording can trick respond the same way to all items in a survey
participants into misunderstanding a survey when the direction of ratings is the same for all
item. items in the survey.
• Negative wording is the use of words in a
For example, suppose we ask participants to
sentence or an item that negates or indicates
indicate their level of agreement with the
the opposite of what was otherwise described.
following items on a 5-point scale to measure
• The rule is to avoid asking participants in a
survey item what they would not do, which can relationship satisfaction:
require rephrasing a sentence or survey item.
• For example:
• “How much do you not like working?” can be
rephrased to “How much do you dislike
working?”
• It may seem like a small change, but it can
effectively reduce confusion
• To avoid this problem, called a response set, mix
up the items in a survey so that ratings are not all
on the same end of the scale for a given
measure.

• The last item is a reverse coded item , meaning

1 (Strongly Disagree) ----- 5 (Strongly Agree) that we need to code responses for the item in
reverse order.
1 (Strongly Disagree) ----- 5 (Strongly Agree) • Because the last item was reverse coded, the
survey can now be scored such that higher
1 (Strongly Disagree) ----- 5 (Strongly Agree) scores indicate greater daily intake of sugar, and
also be written so as to avoid a response set
pitfall.
1 (Strongly Agree) ----- 5 (Strongly Disagree)
 7. Limit the points on the
6. Use rating scales consistently rating scale

• Another rule is to use only one rating scale at • To construct a response scale, keep the scale
a time. In the simplest scenario, use only one between 3 and 10 points (Komorita & Graham,
scale if possible. 1965; Matell & Jacoby, 1971).
• Having only one response scale makes it • Experts in psychometrics, a field involved in the
clear how respondents must respond to all construction of measurement scales, suggest
items in a survey. that response scales should have a midpoint or
intermediate response level.
• If a survey must use two or more different • There are two exceptions to the rule of limiting a
scales, then the items in the survey should rating scale to 3 to 10 points.
be grouped from one type of scale to the • One exception is that a 2-point scale is
next. appropriate for dichotomous scales in which
• Consistent use of rating scales in a survey only two responses are possible.
ensures that participants’ responses reflect • For example, dichotomous scales with true/false,
their true ratings for each item and not some yes/no, or agree/disagree as the response options
confusion about the meaning of the scale are acceptable.
used.
 Bipolar scales are As a general rule, Dichotomous
• A second exception is that bipolar response scales use 3 to 10 points scales are 2-point
scales those that have points that have points on the rating scale scales in which
above and below a zero point, can
above (positive for each item in a only two responses
be 3 to 10 points above and below
the zero point. values) and below survey. are possible.
• Hence, a bipolar scale, such as (negative values) a
the one shown below with 11 zero point.
points, can have up to 21 points, Be clear about the
or 10 points above and 10 points rating scale(s) used
below zero. in surveys.
8. Label or anchor the rating scales 8. Minimize survey length
points
• A survey can be too long, although it is
• Anchors are adjectives that are given to describe
difficult to determine or define when a
the end points of a rating scale to give the scale
survey is “too long.”
greater meaning.
• The best advice is to write the survey to
be as short and concise as possible, yet
• Anchors are often listed below the end points on a
still able to convey or measure what it is
rating scale, such as those given for the bipolar
intended to measure.
scale for the previous rule.
• Keep in mind that participants will fatigue
• Notice also in the bipolar scale that the midpoint is
or simply get tired of answering survey
labeled.
items.
• Indeed, we can include anchors for the end
• The obvious solution is to make the
points
survey as short as possible.
and label every other point on a scale if we
choose.
• A survey that is no longer than 10 to 15
minutes is typically preferred to one that
takes an hour to complete.
• The length to complete a survey tends to be
more important than the number of items in the
survey.
• To minimize survey length, then, the key goal
is to minimize how long (over time) it takes a
participant to complete a survey, which does
not always mean that the number of items in
the survey must be small.
THAN
K
YOU