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Chapter 4. Metrology

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

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Introduction
• Engineering Metrology:
Measurement of dimensions such as length, thickness,
diameter, taper, angle, flatness, profile and others.
• Post-Process Inspection:
Measurements taken after the part is produced
• In-process, On-line or Real-Time Inspection:
Checking part characteristics while part is being
produced.

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Introduction…
• Sensitivity:
Is the smallest difference in dimensions that the
instrument can detect.
• Accuracy:
The ability of a measurement to match the actual
value of the quantity being measured.
• Precision:
The degree to which the instrument gives repeated
measurements of the same standard.
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Introduction…
• The difference between Precision and Accuracy can be
shown by the spread of shooting of a tar-get (as shown in
Diagram below):

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Introduction…
• Range of measurement:
The physical variables that are measured between
two values. One is the higher calibration value H, and
the other is Lower value L.
• Error:
The deviation between the results of measured value
to the actual value.
• Correction:
The numerical value which should be added to the
measured value to get the correct result.
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Inspection Types
• Inspection involves the use of measurement
and gaging techniques to determine whether a
product, its components, subassemblies, or
materials conform to design specifications
• Inspections divide into two types:
1. Inspection by variables - product or part dimensions of
interest are measured by the appropriate measuring
instruments
2. Inspection by attributes – product or part dimensions are
gaged to determine whether or not they are within
tolerance limits
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Inspection Types: Manual
Inspection
• Inspection procedures are often performed manually
• The work is boring and monotonous, yet the need for
precision and accuracy is high
• Hours may be required to measure the important
dimensions of only one part
• Because of the time and cost of manual inspection,
statistical sampling procedures are often used to
reduce the need to inspect every part

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Inspection Types: Sampling
Inspection
• When sampling inspection is used, the number of parts
in the sample is usually small compared to the quantity
of parts produced.
– Sample size may be 1% of production run.
• Because not all of the items in the population are
measured, there is a risk in any sampling procedure that
defective parts will slip through.
– The risk can be reduced by taking a larger sample size.
– Fact is that less than 100% good quality must be
tolerated as the price of using sampling.
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Inspection Types: 100%
Inspection
• Theoretically, the only way to achieve 100%
good quality is by 100% inspection
– All defects are screened and only good quality parts are
passed.

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Principles of Metrology
• In design, design engineer should not only check his
design from the point of view of the strength or
economical production, but he should also keep in
mind how the dimensions specified can be checked or
measured.
• Higher productivity and accuracy can be achieved by
properly understood, introduced the Metrology.
• You can improve the measuring accuracy and
dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the
product.
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Principles of Metrology…
• Proper gauges should be designed and used for rapid
and effective inspection.
• Also automation and automatic control, which are the
modern trends for future developments, are based on
measurement. Digital instruments also we can used
for inspection.

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Measuring Tools and

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Instruments

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Graduated Linear Measurement -
Rules

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Vernier
Calipers

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Vernier
Calipers

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Vernier Height

Gauges

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Vernier Depth

Gauges

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Outside
Micrometers

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Outside
Micrometers

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 Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Inside
Micrometers

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Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Micrometer
Bore and Depth Gauges

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Graduated Angular
Measurement - Protractors

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Special Purpose Measurement
Tools

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Non-Graduated Linear
Measurement - Calipers

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Non-Graduated Linear
Measurement - Gauges

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Non-Graduated Linear Measurement -
Special Purpose Gauges

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Non-Graduated Linear
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Measurement - Rectangular
Gauge Blocks

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Non-Graduated Angular
Measurement - Angle Gauge Blocks

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Non-Graduated Angular
Measurement - Sine Bar

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Terminology for LIMITS &

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FITS
• The terms related to limit system
are as below:
– Size:- It is a number expressed
in a particular unit in the
measurement of length.
– Basic Size:- It is the size based
on which the dimensional Hole
deviations are given.
– Actual Size:- It is the size of the Shaft
component by actual
measurement after it is
manufactured. It should lie
between the two limits of size.
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Terminology for Limits and
•
Fits…
Limits of size:- These are the maximum and minimum permissible sizes of
the part.
• Maximum limit:- Is the maximum size permitted for the part.
• Minimum limit:- it is the minimum size permitted for the part limit of size.
• Hole:- Refers to diameter of a circular hole as well as to any internal
dimension of component .it is referred as “female”
• Shaft:- Limits and fits, all external features of a component including those
which are not cylindrical are designated as ‘Shaft'. It is referred as “male”

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Terminology for Limits and
Fits…
• Tolerance:- Tolerance is the difference between
maximum limit of size and minimum limit of size.

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Allowance
• It is an intentional difference between the maximum
material limits of mating parts, For shaft, the
maximum material will be it’s high limit and for hole, it
will it’s low limit

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Different Types of Limit

• Unilateral Limit: In this method
of presenting the limits, both
the limits of size are on the
same side of the zero line.

• Bilateral Limits: Here one of the

limits is on one side of the zero
line And the other limit of size
is on the other side of the line.
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Deviations
• Deviation:- It is the algebraic
difference between a size, to its
corresponding basic size. It may be
positive, negative or zero.
• Upper Deviation:- It is the algebraic
difference between maximum limit
of size and its corresponding basic
size.
• Lower Deviation:- It is the algebraic
difference between minimum limit
of size and its corresponding basic
size.
• Actual Deviation:- It is the algebraic
difference between actual size and
its corresponding basic size.
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SYSTEM of FITS
• FIT:- It is the relationship that exists between two
mating parts, a hole and shaft with respect to their
dimensional difference before assembly. Three types
of fit are given hereunder.

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Types of Fits
• Clearance fit:- It is a fit which always provides clearance.
Here the tolerance zone of the hole will be above the
tolerance zone of the shaft. Maximum clearance is the
difference between the maximum hole and minimum
shaft. Minimum clearance is the difference between the
minimum hole and maximum shaft.

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Types of Fits…
• Interference fit:- It is a fit which always provides
interference. Here the tolerance zone of the hole will be
below the tolerance zone of the shaft. Maximum
interference is the algebraic difference between the
minimum hole and maximum shaft. Minimum interference
is the algebraic difference between the maximum hole and
minimum shaft.

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Types of Fits…
• Transition fit:- It is a fit which may sometimes
provides clearance and sometimes interference. When
this class of fit is represented graphically, the
tolerance zone of the hole and shaft will overlap each
other. Shaft

Hole Hole

Hole
Shaft
Shaft

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Interchangeability
• When components are mass produced, unless they are
interchangeable, the purpose of mass production is not
fulfilled. By interchangeability, we mean that identical
components, manufactured by different personnel under
different environments, can be assembled and replaced
without any further rectification during the assembly stage,
without affecting the functioning of the component when
assembled.

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Types of Interchangeability
• Hole Basis System:- Where the
size of the hole is kept constant
and the size of the shaft is varied to
get the different class of fits, then
it is known as the hole basis
system.

• Shaft Basis System:- Where the

size of the shaft is kept constant
and the variations given to the hole
to get the different class of fits,
then it is known as the shaft basis
system.
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Tolerance
• It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore it is essential to
allow a definite tolerance or permissible variation on every specified dimension.
• Why Tolerances are specified?
– Variations in properties of the material being machined introduce errors.
– The production machines themselves may have some inherent inaccuracies.
– It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings. While setting up the
tools and workpiece on the machine, some errors are likely to creep in
Consider the dimension shown in fig. When trying to achieve a diameter of
40 mm (Basic or Nominal diameter), a variation of 0.05 mm on either side
may result. If the shaft is satisfactory even if its diameter lies between 40.05
mm & 39.95 mm, the dimension 40.05 mm is known as Upper limit and the
dimension 39.95 mm is known as Lower limit of size. Tolerance in the above
example is (40.05-39.95) =0.10 mm Tolerance is always a positive
quantitative number.

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Tolerance…

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Unilateral Tolerance
• Tolerances on a dimension may either be unilateral or
bilateral.
• When the two limit dimensions are only on one side of
the nominal size, (either above or below) the
tolerances are said to be unilateral.
• For unilateral tolerances, a case may occur when one
of the limits coincide with the basic size.

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Unilateral Tolerance…

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Bilateral Tolerance
• When the two limit dimensions are above and below
nominal size, (i.e. on either side of the nominal size)
the tolerances are said to be bilateral.
• Unilateral tolerances, are preferred over bilateral
because the operator can machine to the upper limit
of the shaft (or lower limit of a hole) still having the
whole tolerance left for machining to avoid rejection
of parts.

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Bilateral Tolerance…

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Tolerance Accumulation (or)
Tolerance Build Up
• If a part comprises of several steps, each step having
some tolerance specified over its length, then the
overall tolerance on the complete length will be the
sum of tolerances on individual lengths as shown in
figure.
• The effect of accumulation of tolerances can be
minimized by adopting progressive dimensioning from
a common datum as shown in figure.
• Another example of tolerance build up is shown
below:
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Tolerance Accumulation (or)
Tolerance Build Up…

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Compound Tolerances
• A compound tolerance is one which is derived by
considering the effect of tolerances on more than one
dimension.
• For ex, the tolerance on the dimension L is dependent
on the tolerances on D, H & q.
• The dimension L will be maximum when the base
dimension is (D+a), the angle is (q+a), and the vertical
dimension is (H-d).
• The dimension L will be minimum when the base
dimension is (D-b), the angle is (q-b), and the vertical
dimension is (H+c).
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Compound Tolerances…

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Why use G D & T ?

The language of geometric dimensioning and tolerance can be intimidating at
first, but when used properly, it can yield many advantages:
• Standardized, international system
• More flexibility, particularly for complex shapes
• Allows cylindrical tolerance zones
• Datum's are clearly defined
• Based on the fit and function of a part or assembly
• Eliminates the need for many notes
 Allows max. Production Tolerance
 Guarantees fits and interchangeability of mating parts and
assemblies
 Reduces potential for error in interpolation.
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G D & T Symbols

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Datum
• A datum is a theoretically exact point, axis or plane
from which the location or geometric characteristics of
a part feature are established.

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MMC & LMC

• When a part feature contains the
maximum amount of material allowed
within the specified size limit, it is said to
be in its max. material condition.
- The MMC of an external feature is its
upper size limit.
- The MMC of an internal feature is its
lower size limit.
• When a part feature contains the least
amount of material allowed within the
specified size limits it is said to be in its
least material condition.
–The LMC of an external feature is its
lower size limit.
–The LMC of an internal feature is its
upper size limit.
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Flatness
• A Flatness tolerance zone is the distance between two
parallel planes, the part surface must lie between
them.

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Straightness
• A straightness tolerance is used to control the straightness of a
surface or axis. It specifies how much the surface or axis is
allowed to vary from the perfect straight line implied by the
point.

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Circularity
• Circularity refers to the roundness of a cylindrical,
cone shaped or spherical part feature at any given
cross-section.
• A circularity tolerance specifies how much the cross-
section is allowed to vary from the perfect circularity
implied by the point.
• A circularity tolerance zone is bounded by two
concentric circles. The surface of the cross-section
must lie between them.

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Circularity…

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Cylindericity
• Cylindericity refers to the roundness of pins, shaft and
other cylindrical features along their entire length.
• A Cylindericity tolerance specifies how much the
surface of the cylindrical feature is allowed to vary
from the perfect cylinder implied by the drawing.
• A Cylindericity tolerance zone is bounded by two
concentric cylinders as specified distance apart The
surface of the cylindrical feature must lie between
them.

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Perpendicularity
• Perpendicularity refers to a part surface, center plane or axis
that is 90 degree to a datum plane or axis.

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Angularity
• Angularity refers to a part surface, center plane or axis at
specified angle other than 90 degree to a datum plane or axis.

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Parallelism
• Parallelism refers to:
– A surface or center plane that is an equal distance at all points from a
datum plane.
– An axis whose entire length is an equal distance from a datum plane or
datum axis.

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Profile Tolerances
 A Profile is a two dimensional outline of a part feature from top, side or
front view. On a drawing, it is typically defined by basic dimensions in the
form of sizes, radii, angles or arc.
 There are two types of profile tolerances:
– Profile of surface
– Profile of a line

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Circular Run Out

• A Circular run out tolerance controls the relationship of
individual circular elements of the part feature to a datum axis.

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Total Run Out

• A total run out tolerance controls the relationship of
the entire feature surface to a datum axis.

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Position
• Position refers to the theoretically exact location of the center axis or center
plane of a feature in relation to another feature or datum.
• A position tolerance specifies how much the center, axis, or center plane is
allowed to vary from its theoretically exact location.

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Concentricity
• Concentricity describes the relationship between the axes of
two or more cylindrical features. Perfect concentricity exists
when the axes coincide.

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Symmetry
• A part feature that can be divided into two equal
halves is described as symmetrical.

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Coordinate Measuring
• There Machines (CMM)
has been growing need to have an apparatus
that can do faster first piece inspection and many
times, 100% dimensional inspection.
• The Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) plays a
vital role in the mechanization of the inspection
process.
• Some of the CMMs can even be used as layout
machines before machining and for checking feature
locations after machining.

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Coordinate Measuring
Machines(CMM)…
• Coordinate measuring machines are relatively recent
developments in measurement technology.
• It consist of a platform on which the workpiece being
measured is placed and moved linearly or rotated.
• A probe attached to a head capable of lateral and vertical
movements records all measurements. Coordinate measuring
machines are also called measuring machines.
• They are versatile in their capability to record measurement of
complex profiles with high sensitivity (0.25 µm) and speed. In
this unit, we will discuss the principle and the working of a
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM).

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Description of Parts…
• Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are built rigidly and
are very precise.
• They are equipped with digital readout or can be linked
to computers for online inspection of parts.
• These machines can be placed close to machine tools for
efficient inspection and rapid feedback for correction of
processing parameter before the next part is made.
• They are also made more rugged to resist environmental
effects in manufacturing plants such as temperature
variations, vibration and dirt.
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Description of Parts…
• Important features of the CMMs are :
(i) To give maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight,
all the moving members, the bridge structure, Z-axis carriage, and Z-
column are made of hollow box construction.
(ii) A map of systematic errors in machine is built up and fed into
the computer system so that the error compensation is built up into
the software.
iii) All machines are provided with their own computers with
interactive dialogue facility and friendly software.
(iv) Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and
interfaced with the computer to be used for compensation of
temperature gradients and thus provide increased accuracy and
repeatability.
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Description of Parts…
• A CMM consists of four main elements :
– Main Structure
– Probing System
– Machine Control and Computer Hardware
– Software for Three-dimensional Geometry Analysis

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 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure
– The machine incorporates the basic concept of three coordinate
axes so that precise movement in x, y, and z directions is possible.
– Each axis is fitted with a linear measurement transducer. The
transducers sense the direction of movement and gives digital
display.
– Accordingly, there may be five types of arrangement :
• Cantilever
• Bridge Type
• Column Type
• Gantry
• Horizontal
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure : Cantilever
• The cantilever construction
combines easy access and
relatively small floor space
requirements. It is typically
limited to small and medium
sized machines. Parts larger
than the machine table can
be inserted into the open
side without inhibiting full
machine travel. Figure shows
a cantilever structure. Cantilever Structure
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure : Bridge Type
• The bridge arrangement over the
table carries the quill (z-axis)
along the x-axis and is
sometimes referred to as a
travelling bridge. It is claimed
that the bridge construction
provides better accuracy,
although it may be offset by
difficulty in making two
members track in perfect
alignment. This is by far the most
popular CMM construction. Bridge Structure
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure : Column Type
• The column type machine is
commonly referred to as a
universal measuring machine rather
than a CMM. These machines are
usually considered gage room
instruments rather than production
floor machine. The direction of
movements of the arms are as
shown in Figure. The constructional
difference in column type with the
cantilever type is with x and y-axes
movements. Column Structure
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure : Gantry
• In a gantry type arrangement,
arms are held by two fixed
supports as shown in figure
Other two arms are capable of
sliding over the supports.
Movements of the x, y and z-axes
are also as shown in Figure 8.4.
The gantry type construction is
particularly suited for very large
components and allows the
operator to remain close to the
area of inspection. Gantry Structure
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Main Structure : Horizontal
• Figure shows the construction of a
horizontal structure. The open
structure of this arrangement
provides optimum accessibility for
large objects such as dies, models,
and car bodies. Some horizontal arm
machines are referred to as layout
machines. There are some horizontal
machines where the probe arm can
rotate like a spindle to perform
tramming operations. Tramming
refers to accurate mechanical
adjustment of instrument or machine Horizontal Structure
with the help of tram.
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System
– It is the part of a CMM that sense the different parameters
required for the calculation. Appropriate probes have to be
selected and placed in the spindle of the CMM. Originally,
the probes were solid or hard, such as tapered plugs for
locating holes. These probes required manual manipulation
to establish contact with the workpiece, at which time the
digital display was read. Nowadays, transmission trigger-
probes, optical transmission probes, multiple or cluster
probes, and motorized probes are available. They are
discussed in brief below:

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System : Inductive and Optical Transmission
Probes
– Inductive and optical transmission probes have been
developed for automatic tool changing. Power is transmitted
using inductive linking between modules fitted to the
machine structure and attached to the probe. Figure shows
a schematic of the inductive transmission probe. The hard-
wired transmission probe shown is primarily for tool setting
and is mounted in a fixed position on the machine structure.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Inductive Probe System and Automatic Probe Changing

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
– The optical transmission probe shown in figure
allows probe rotation between gaging moves,
making it particularly useful for detuning the probe.
The wide-angle system allows greater axial
movement of the probe and is suitable for the
majority of installation.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Optical Transmission Probe

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System : Motorized Probe
– With the motorized probe, 48 positions in the horizontal
axis, 15 in the vertical axis can be programmed for a total of
720 distinct probe orientations. Figure (b) shows some
typical applications for motorized probe. It shows that with
a range of light weight extensions, the head can reach into
deep holes and recesses. The second diagram shows that
head of the probe is sufficiently compact to be regarded as
an extension of the machine quill. This enables the
inspection of complex components that would otherwise be
impossible or involve complex setups.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

(a) Motorized Probe

(b) Typical Applications of Motorized Probe

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System : Multiple Styluses Probe Heads
– Wide ranges of styli have been developed to suit
many different gaging applications. Some of the
different styli available are shown mounted on a
multiple gaging head in figure. The selection of
stylus is done based on the application for which
the probe is to be used.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Multiple Stylus Probe Head with Variety of Styli

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System : Machine Control and Computer
Hardware
– The control unit allows manual measurement and
self teach programming in addition to CNC
operation. The control unit is microprocessor
controlled. Usually a joystick is provided to activate
the drive for manual measurement.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Description of Parts…
• Probing System : Software for Three-dimensional
Geometry Analysis
– In a CMM, the computer and the software are an inseparable part.
They together represent one system. The efficiency and cost
effectiveness of a CMM depend to a large extent on the software. The
features that the CMM software should include :
• Measurement of diameter, center distances, lengths, geometrical and form errors in
prismatic components, etc.
• Online statistics for statistical information in a batch.
• Parameter programming to minimize CNC programming time of similar parts.
• Measurement of plane and spatial curves.
• Data communications.
• Digital input and output commands for process integration.
• Program for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid gears.
• Interface to CAD software.
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Advantages of CMM
• CMM has got a number of advantages. The precision
and accuracy given by a CMM is very high. It is
because of the inherent characteristics of the
measuring techniques used in CMM. Following are the
main advantages that CMM can offer :
– Flexibility
– Reduced Setup Time
– Single Setup
– Improved Accuracy
– Reduced Operator Influence
– Improved Productivity
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Advantages of CMM :
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Flexibility
• CMMs are essentially universal measuring machines
and need not be dedicated to any particular task.
• They can measure almost any dimensional
characteristic of a part configuration, including cams,
gears and warped surfaces.
• No special fixtures or gages are required. Because
probe contact is light, most parts can be inspected
without being clamped to the table.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Advantages of CMM : Reduced
Setup Time
• Part alignment and establishing appropriate reference
points are very time consuming with conventional
surface plate inspection techniques.
• Software allows the operator to define the orientation
of the part on the CMM, and all subsequent data are
corrected for misalignment between the parts-
reference system and the machine coordinates.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Advantages of CMM : Single
Setup
• Most parts can be inspected in a single setup, thus
eliminating the need to reorient the parts for access to
all features.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Advantages of CMM : Improved
Accuracy
• All measurements in a CMM are taken from a common
geometrically fixed measuring system, eliminating the
introduction and the accumulation of errors that can
result with hand-gage inspection methods and transfer
techniques.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Advantages of CMM : Reduced Operator
Influence
• The use of digital readouts eliminate the subjective interpretation
of readings common with dial or vernier type measuring devices.
• Operator “feel” is virtually eliminated with modern touch-trigger
probe systems, and most CMMs have routine measuring
procedures for typical part features, such as bores or center
distances.
• In computer assisted systems; the operator is under the control of
a program that eliminates operator choice.
• In addition, automatic data recording, available on most machines,
prevents errors in transcribing readings to the inspection report.
• This adds up to the fact that less skilled operators can be easily
instructed to perform relatively complex inspection procedures.
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Advantages of CMM : Improved
Productivity
• The above-mentioned advantages help make CMMs
more productive than conventional inspection
techniques.
• Furthermore, productivity is realized through the
computational and analytical capabilities of associated
data-handling systems, including calculators and all
levels of computers.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Surface Finish
• An engineering component may be cast, forged,
drawn, welded or stamped, etc.
• All the surfaces may not have functional requirements
and need not be equally finished
• Some surfaces (owing to their functional
requirements) need additional machining that needs
to be recorded on the drawing

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Surface Roughness
The geometrical characteristics of a surface include,
1. Macro-deviations,
2. Surface waviness, and
3. Micro-irregularities.
The surface roughness is evaluated by the height, Rt and mean roughness index
Ra of the micro-irregularities.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Surface Roughness Number

• Represents the average departure of the surface from
perfection over a prescribed sampling length, (usually
selected as 0.8 mm)

• Surface roughness number (Ra) is expressed in microns.

Ra = (h1+h2+-----+hn)/n

• The measurements are usually made along a line,

running at right angle to the general direction of tool
marks on the surface.
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 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Surface Roughness
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Number…
• Actual profile, Af
– It is the profile of the actual surface obtained by finishing
operation.

• Reference profile, Rf
– It is the profile to which the irregularities of the surface is
referred to. it passes through the highest point of the actual
profile.

• Datum profile, Df
– It is the profile, parallel to the reference profile .it passes
through the lowest point B of the actual profile
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 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Surface Roughness
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

• Mean Profile, M
Number…
f

– It is that profile, within the sampling length chosen (L) such that
the sum of the material-filled areas enclosed above it by the
actual profile is equal to the sum of the material void area
enclosed below it by the profile.
• Peak to valley height, Rt
– It is the distance from the datum profile to the reference profile.
• Mean roughness index, Ra
– It is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of the highest h i
between the actual and mean profile.
– Ra = 1/L ∫x=0 |hi| dx , where L is sampling length

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Surface Roughness Expected
from Manufacturing Processes

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Surface Roughness
INDIAN INSTITUTE Expected
OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

from Manufacturing
Processes…

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Measurement of Roughness
• The roughness may be measured, using any of the following :
1. Straight edge
2. Surface gauge
3. Optical flat
4. Tool marker’s microscope
5. Profilometer
6. Profilograph
7. Talysurf

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
INDICATION of SURFACE
TEXTURE
• The basic symbol consists of
two legs of unequal length
inclined at approximately 60’ to
the line representing the
considered surface. The symbol
must be represented by thin line.

• If the removal of material by

machining is required, a bar is added
to the basic symbol,

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
INDICATION of SURFACE
TEXTURE…
• If the removal of material is not
permitted, a circle is added to the
basic symbol.

• When special surface

characteristics have to be indicated,
a line is added to the longer arm of
any of the above symbols,
• Basic symbol : only be used alone when
its meaning is explained by a note
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Indication of Surface
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Roughness

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Indication of Surface
Roughness…
• If it is required that the required surface
texture be produced by one particular
production method, this method shall be
indicated in plain language on an
extension of the longer arm of the symbol

• Indication of machining allowance where

it is necessary to specify the value of the
machining allowance, this shall be
indicated on the left of the symbols. This
value shall be expressed in millimeters.
10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal
 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Indication of Surface
Roughness…
• Generally to
indicate the
surface
roughness, the
symbol is used
instead of
value. The
relation is given
in following
table.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Machining Symbols

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Machining Symbols…
• Position of the Specifications of the Surface Texture
in the Symbol - The specifications Of surface texture
shall be placed relative to the symbol as shown in
figure.

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Symbols with Additional
Indications

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Ways to Represent
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Roughness

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
Ways to Represent
Roughness…

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Ways to Represent
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Roughness…

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Ways to Represent
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Roughness…

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal

 MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

10/19/24 Dr. Kaushik Pal