Section 1.

Inductive and
Deductive
Reasoning

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What You Will Learn
Upon completion of this section, you will be
able to:
 Understand and use inductive reasoning
to solve problems.
 Understand and use deductive reasoning
to solve problems.

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Natural Numbers
The natural numbers or counting numbers
are the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . .

The three dots, called an ellipsis, mean that

8 is not the last number but that the numbers
continue in the same manner.

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Divisibility
• If a ÷ b has a remainder of zero, then a is
divisible by b.
• The counting numbers that are divisible by 2
are 2, 4, 6, 8,… . These numbers are the
even counting numbers.
• The counting numbers that are not divisible
by 2 are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,… . These numbers are
the odd counting numbers.
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Inductive Reasoning

• The process of reasoning to a general

conclusion through observations of
specific cases.
• Also called induction.
• Often used by mathematicians and
scientists to predict answers to
complicated problems.
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Scientific Method

• Inductive reasoning is a part of the

scientific method.
• When we make a prediction based on
specific observations, it is called a
hypothesis or conjecture.

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Example 3: Biometrics

What reasoning process has led to the

conclusion that no two people have the
same fingerprints or DNA? This conclusion
has resulted in the use of fingerprints and
DNA in courts of law as evidence to convict
persons of crimes.

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Example 3: Inductive Reasoning
Solution:
In millions of tests, no two people have been
found to have the same fingerprints or DNA.
By induction, then, we believe that fingerprints
and DNA provide a unique identification and
can therefore be used in a court of law as
evidence. Is it possible that sometime in the
future two people will be found who do have
exactly the same fingerprints or DNA?

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Example 5: Pick a Number,
Any Number
Pick any number, multiply the number by 4,
add 2 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 1 from the quotient. Repeat this
procedure for several different numbers and
then make a conjecture about the
relationship between the original number
and the final number.

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Example 5: Pick a Number,
Any Number
Solution:
Pick a number: say, 5
Multiply the number by 4: 4 × 5 = 20
Add 2 to the product: 20 + 2 = 22
Divide the sum by 2: 22 ÷ 2 = 11
Subtract 1 from quotient: 11 – 1 = 10

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Example 5: Pick a Number,
Any Number
Solution:
• We started with the number 5 and finished
with the number 10.
• Start with 2, you will end with 4.
• Start with 3, final result is 6.
• 4 would result in 8, and so on.
• We may conjecture that when you follow the
given procedure, the number you end with
will always be twice the original number.

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Counterexample
In testing a conjecture, if a special case is found
that satisfies the conditions of the conjecture but
produces a different result, that case is called a
counterexample.
• Only one exception is necessary to prove a
conjecture false.
• If a counterexample cannot be found, the
conjecture is neither proven nor disproven.

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Deductive Reasoning
• A second type of reasoning process is
called deductive reasoning, or deduction.
• Deductive reasoning is the process of
reasoning to a specific conclusion from a
general statement.

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Example 6: Pick a Number, n

Prove, using deductive reasoning, that the

procedure in Example 5 will always result in
twice the original number selected.

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Example 6: Pick a Number, n
Solution:
To use deductive reasoning, we begin with the general
case rather than specific examples.

Pick a number: n
Multiply the number by 4: 4n
Add 2 to the product: 4n + 2
Divide the sum by 2: (4n + 2) ÷ 2 = 2n + 1
Subtract 1 from quotient: 2n + 1 – 1 = 2n

Note that for any number n selected, the result is 2n, or

twice the original number selected.
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Section 1.2

Estimation
Techniques

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What You Will Learn
Upon completion of this section, you will be
able to:
• Use estimation techniques to determine
an approximate answer to a question.

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Estimation
• The process of arriving at an approximate
answer to a question is called estimation.
• We often round numbers to estimate, or
approximate, an answer.
• The symbol ≈ means is approximately
equal to.
• Estimates are not meant to give exact
values for answers, but are a means of
determining whether your answer is
reasonable.
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Example 1: Estimating the Cost of
Cupcakes
Sonya decides to purchase cupcakes for a
party. Estimate her cost if she purchases
19 cupcakes at $1.95 each.

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Example 1: Estimating the Cost of
Cupcakes
Solution:
We may round the amounts to obtain an
estimate.
Number Number Rounded
19 20
× $1.95 × $2.00
$40.00
The 19 cupcakes would cost approximately
$40.00, written ≈ $40.00.
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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
The Martellos traveled 1276 miles from
their home in Springfield, Missouri, to
Yellowstone National Park.
a) If their trip took 19.9 hours of driving
time, estimate the average speed, in
miles per hour, that their car traveled.

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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
Solution:
To estimate the average miles per hour,
divide the number of miles by the number
of hours.
Numbers Rounded
1276 1300
 65
19.9 20
The car averaged about 65 mph.
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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
The Martellos traveled 1276 miles from
their home in Springfield, Missouri, to
Yellowstone National Park.
b) If their car used 52 gallons of gasoline,
estimate the average gas mileage of
their car, in miles per gallon.

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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
Solution:
To estimate the average gas mileage,
divide the number of miles driven by the
number of gallons used.
Numbers Rounded
1276 1300
 26
52 50
The car averaged about 26 miles per gallon.
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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
The Martellos traveled 1276 miles from
their home in Springfield, Missouri, to
Yellowstone National Park.
c) If the cost of gasoline averaged $3.99
per gallon, estimate the total cost of the
gasoline used.

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Example 4: Using Estimation in
Calculations
Solution:
To estimate the total cost of gasoline,
multiply the price per gallon by the
number of gallons used.
Numbers Rounded
50 × $3.99 50 × $4.00 = $200

The cost of the gasoline is about $200.

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Estimates on a Map
• Sometimes when working with
measurements on a map, it may be difficult
to get an accurate estimate because of the
curves on the map.
• To get a more accurate estimate, you may
want to use a piece of string and tape or
pins to mark the ends.

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Example 5: Estimating Distances on
Trails to the West
In the mid-1800s, thousands of settlers followed trails
to the West to gain cheap, fertile land and a chance to
make a fortune. One of the main trails to the West
was the Oregon Trail, which ran from Independence,
Missouri, to the Oregon Territory. Another trail, the
California Trail, ran from Fort Hall on the Oregon Trail
to Sacramento, California. A map of the Oregon Trail
and the California Trail is shown on the next slide.

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map

a) Using the scale shown and the Oregon

Trail, estimate the distance from
Independence, Missouri, to Fort Hall in the
Oregon Territory.

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map

Solution:
a) Using a ruler and the scale given on the
map, we can determine that approximately
¾-in represents 250 miles. Mark off ¾-inch
intervals, from Independence, Missouri, to
Fort Hall in the Oregon Territory. If you do
so, there are about 4, thus the distance is
4 × 250 mi or about 1000 mi.

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map
Solution:
On a map like this one, it may be difficult to
get an accurate estimate because of the
curves on the map. To get a more accurate
estimate, one can use a string placed along
the road, then stretch the string, mark off
¾-in intervals or measure the string, getting
about 3¼ in or 1083 mi.

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map

b) Using the scale shown and the California

Trail, estimate the distance from Fort Hall
in the Oregon Territory to Sacramento,
California.

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Example 5: Estimates on a Map
Solution:
b) Using the procedure discussed in part (a),
we estimate that the distance from Fort
Hall in the Oregon Territory to
Sacramento, California is about 1 5/8 in
or about 2.2 ¾-in intervals.
The distance is about 2.2 × 250 mi, or
about 550 mi.

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Estimates on a Photo
• In order to estimate large areas, a
photograph can be helpful. We can divide
the photo into rectangles with equal areas,
then pick one area that looks
representative of all the areas.
• Estimate (count) the number of items in
this single area. Then multiply by the
number of equal areas.

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Estimates on a Photo
• The number of regions (rectangles) into
which you choose to divide the photo is
arbitrary. Generally, the more regions, the
better the approximation.

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Example 7: Estimates on a Photo
Estimate the number of corn kernels in the top
layer in the accompanying photograph.

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Example 7: Estimates on a Photo
Solution:
Divide the photo into 20 approximately equal
areas, select the top left as representative
region, enlarge the area and count the
kernels.

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Example 7: Estimates on a Photo
Solution:
If half a kernel is in the region, we count it.
There are about 18 kernels in this region.
Multiplying by 20 gives 18 × 20 = 360. Thus,
there are about 360 kernels in the photo.

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Section 1.3

Problem-
Solving
Procedures

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What You Will Learn
Upon completion of this section, you will be
able to:
• Understand and use a general problem-
solving procedure.

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Polya’s Procedure

George Polya (1887-1985), a mathematician

who was educated in Europe and taught at
Stanford, developed a general procedure for
solving problems.

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Guidelines for Problem Solving

1. Understand the Problem.

2. Devise a Plan to Solve the
Problem.
3. Carry Out the Plan.
4. Check the Results.

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1. Understand the Problem.
• Read the problem carefully at least twice.
• Try to make a sketch of the problem.
Label the information given.
• Make a list of the given facts that are
pertinent to the problem.
• Determine if you have sufficient
information to solve the problem.

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2. Devise a Plan to Solve the Problem.

• Can you relate this problem to a previous

problem that you’ve worked before?
• Can you express the problem in terms of
an algebraic equation?
• Look for patterns or relationships.
• Can you express the problem more
simply?

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2. Devise a Plan to Solve the Problem.

• Can you substitute smaller or simpler

numbers to make the problem more
understandable?
• Will listing the information in a table help
in solving the problem?
• Can you make an educated guess at the
solution? You can work backward to
determine the correct procedure.

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3. Carrying Out the Plan.

• Use the plan you devised in step 2 to

solve the problem.

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4. Check the Results.
• Ask yourself, “Does the answer make
sense?” and “Is it reasonable?”
• If the answer is not reasonable, recheck your
method for solving the problem and your
calculations.
• Can you check the solution using the
original statement?
• Is there an alternative method to arrive at
the same conclusion?
• Can the results of this problem be used to
solve other problems?
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Example 2: Shuttle Revenue
Airport Express shuttle service provides
service from San Antonio International Airport
to downtown hotels, approximately 10 miles
away. One particular shuttle makes 16 round
trips per day, carrying 5 passengers per trip.
The fare each way is $18. What are the
receipts from one day’s operation for this
particular shuttle?

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Example 2: Shuttle Revenue

Solution:
List all the information:
Distance from airport to downtown hotels ≈ 10 miles
* Number of round trips per day = 16
* Number of passengers per trip = 5
* Fare each way = $18
We need only the information with a *.

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Example 2: Shuttle Revenue

Solution:
Round trip costs 2 × $18 = $36
The total receipts for one day is the product
of the number of round trips, the number of
passengers, and the cost per round trip
= 16 × 5 × $36 = $2880

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Example 3: Retirement

It is never too early to start planning for

retirement. U.S. Census Bureau data
indicate that at age 65 the average woman
will live another 21 years and the average
man will live another 19 years. The data
also indicate that about 33% of the average
person’s retirement income will come from
Social Security.

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Example 3: Retirement

When discussing retirement planning,

many investment firms and financial
planners use the graph in the figure on the
next slide which shows how long a typical
retiree’s assets (or “nest egg”) will last
based on the percentage of the assets
withdrawn each year.

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Example 3: Retirement

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Example 3: Retirement

a) If a typical retiree has retirement assets

of $500,000, how much can he or she
withdraw annually if he or she wishes
the assets to last 21 years?

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Example 3: Retirement
Solution:
a) From the graph, we can see that for
assets to last 21 years, about 6% of the
assets can be withdrawn annually. The
amount that can be withdrawn is
Amount = 6% of assets
Amount = 0.06(500,000) = $30,000
Thus, about $30,000 can be withdrawn
annually.
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Example 3: Retirement

b) How much should a retiree have in

assets if he or she wishes to withdraw
$25,000 annually and wishes his or her
assets to last 18 years?

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Example 3: Retirement
Solution:
b) From the graph, we can see that for assets to last 18
years, about 7% of the assets can be withdrawn annually.
That amount has to equal $25,000:
7% of assets = $25,000
0.07 × assets = $25,000
25,000
Assets  357,142.86
0.07
Therefore, if the retiree has assets of about $357,142.86,
he or she will be able to withdraw $25,000 annually and
the assets will last 18 years.
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Example 4: Determining a Tip
The cost of Freddie’s meal before tax is
$28.00.

a) If a 6 ½% sales tax is added to his bill,

determine the total cost of the meal
including tax.

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Example 4: Determining a Tip
Solution:
Change 6 ½% to a decimal: 0.065
Sales tax = 6 ½ % of meal
Sales tax = 0.065(28.00) = 1.82
The total bill = cost of meal + sales tax
Total bill = 28.00 + 1.82 = 29.82
The bill including sales tax is $29.82.

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Example 4: Determining a Tip
The cost of Freddie’s meal before tax is
$28.00.

b) If Freddie wants to leave a 10% tip on

the pretax cost of the meal, how much
should he leave?

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Example 4: Determining a Tip
Solution:
To find 10% of any number, we multiply the
number by 0.10
10% of pretax cost = 0.10($28.00)
= $2.80
A simple way to find 10% of any number is
to move the decimal point in the number
one place to the left:
28.00  2.80
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Example 4: Determining a Tip
The cost of Freddie’s meal before tax is
$28.00.

c) If he wants to leave a 15% tip on the

pretax cost of the meal, how much
should he leave?

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Example 4: Determining a Tip
Solution:
To find 15% of $28.00, multiply:
15% of $28.00 = 0.15($28.00) = $4.20

Or to find 15%, find 10% and add it to ½ that

amount:
$2.80
$2.80 + = $2.80 + $1.40 = $4.20
2

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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Some recipes for smoking a turkey
recommend presoaking the turkey in a
brine solution. To make enough brine
solution to smoke a 12-pound turkey, use
16 tablespoons (tbsp) of salt in 2 gallons
(gal) of water.

a) If you wish to make 3.5 gallons of a brine

solution, how much salt is needed?

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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Solution:
Determine how much salt is needed to mix
with 3.5 gallons of water. Use the
information we know to set up a proportion
to solve for the unknown quantity.
16 tbsp ? tbsp
{
Item to be found
Given ratio

2 gal 3.5 gal Other information given

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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Solution: 16 x

2 3.5
16(3.5) 2 x
56 2 x
28  x

Thus, 28 tbsp. of salt must be used to make

3.5 gal of a brine solution.
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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Some recipes for smoking turkey
recommend presoaking the turkey in a brine
solution. To make enough brine solution to
smoke a 12-pound turkey, use 16
tablespoons (tbsp) of salt in 2 gallons (gal)
of water.

b) If you wish to make enough brine solution

to soak a 20-pound turkey, how much salt is
needed to make the brine solution?
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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Solution:
Use the known information that a 12-lb
turkey requires 16 tbsp of salt.

12 lb 20 lb
{
Other information given
Given ratio 
16 tbsp ? tbsp Item to be found

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Example 6: A Brine Solution
Solution:
12 20

16 x
12( x ) 16(20)
12 x 320
x 26.67
Thus, about 26.67 tbsp of salt are needed to
make enough brine solution for a 20-lb turkey.
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