C H AP

TER I
C AM E
V
RA
A camera is an optical
instrument for recording or
capturing images, which may be
stored locally, transmitted to
another location, or both. The
images may be individual still
photographs or sequences of
image constituting videos or
movies. The camera is a remote
sensing device as it senses
The word camera comes from
camera obscura, which means
"dark chamber" and is the Latin
name of the original device for
projecting an image of external
reality onto a flat surface. The
modern photographic camera
evolved from the camera obscura.
The functioning of the camera is
very similar to the functioning of
the human eye.
ESSENTIAL PARTS
OF CAMERA
BODY
A light-light box that serves as
an unbending structure on which
every single other part are
mounted furthermore serve to
shield the film from introduction
to light, aside from during the
time spent taking the photo. The
body is for the most part made
out of hard plastic and light
metal. As shown in figure 48 the
body or light tight box of the
LENS
It is a type of a plastic or glass and in more expound camera, its
lens is comprise of a few bit of glass mounted in a chamber called
the lens barrel. The lens has its light assembling force and it is
shown by the f-numbers or relative opening, which is typically
stamped on the lens barrel. Lenses with low f-numbers have
generally high light-assembling power and are known as the quick
lenses, while lens with high f-numbers have low light-assembling
power and called the moderate lenses. The light assembling force
of most camera lenses is controlled by method for a stomach. The
stomach looks like the iris of an eye. At the point when the
stomach is broadly open, it permits a greatest light to go into it.
At the point when somewhat shut, it diminishes the measure of
light that go into it. Since shutting the stomach cecreases the
light assembling force of the lens, it has the impact of abating the
2.1. Types of Lenses According to the Type of
Image they Produce:
• Convex Lens - Sometimes called a positive
lens; the glass or plastic surfaces bulge
outwards in the center giving the classic
lentil-like shape. A convex lens is also called
a converging lens because it makes parallel
light. rays passing through it bend inward
and meet (converge) at a spot just beyond
the lens known as the focal point.
• Concave Lens - Also known as
negative lens. Is exactly the
opposite with the outer
surfaces curving inward, so it
makes parallel light rays curve
outward or diverge. That's
why concave lenses are
sometimes called diverging
lens.
LENS ABERRATIONS
Nothing is perfect is a content-free statement. It's an excuse used
over and over again to explain why things don't work out as
intended. Its explanation that explains nothing. There's no room in
science for palliative blanket statements like this. Science is not the
pursuit of perfection. Perfection is a dumb concept to begin with. In
optics, the deviation from perfection is called aberration. More
precisely, an aberration is a deviation of a ray from the behavior
predicted by the simplified rules of geometric optics. The primary
rule referred to here is the one that states that rays of light parallel
to the principal axis of a lens or curved mirror meet at a point called
the focus. Lenses do not form perfect images, and a lens aways
introduces some degree of distortion or aberration that makes the
image an imperfect replica of the object. Careful design of the lens
system for a particular application minimizes the aberration. Severe
TYPES OF LENS
ABBERATION
ASTIGMATISM
One where rays that propagate in two perpendicular planes have different focal. If
an optical system with, astigmatism is used to form an image of a cross, the
vertical and horizontal lines will be in sharp focus at two different distances. The
term comes from the Greek a- (a-) meaning "without" and stigma, "a mark, spot,
puncture". There are two distinct forms of astigmatism. The first is a third-order
aberration, which. occurs for objects (or parts of objects) away from the optical
axis. This form of aberration occurs even when the optical system is perfectly
symmetrical. This is often referred to as a "monochromatic aberration", because it
occurs even for light of a single wavelength. This terminology may be misleading,
however, as the amount of aberration can vary strongly with wavelength in an
optical system. The second form of astigmatism occurs when the optical system is
not symmetric about the optical axis. This may be by design (as in the case of a
cylindrical lens), or due to manufacturing error in the surfaces of the components
or misalignment of the components. In this case, astigmatism is observed even
for rays from on-axis object points. This form of astigmatism is extremely
important in vision science and eye care, since the human eye often exhibits this
aberration due to imperfections in the shape of the cornea of or the lens. As
CHROMATIC ABERRATION
Also called achromatism, chromatic distortion and
spherochromatism is an effect resulting from dispersion in which
there is a failure of a lens to focus all colors to the same
convergence point. It occurs because lenses have different
refractive indices for different wavelength of light. The refractive
index of transparent materials decreases with increasing
wavelength in degrees unique to each. Chromatic aberration
manifests itself as "fringes" of color along boundaries that
separate dark and bright parts of the image, because each color in
the optical spectrum cannot be focused at a single common point.
Since the focal length f of a lens is dependent on the refractive
index n, different wavelengths of light will be focused on different
positions. As shown in figure 54 the action of light during
COMA
Also known as comatic aberration derives its name from the comet-like
appearance of the aberrated image. Coma occurs when an object off
the optical axis of the lens is imaged, where rays pass through the lens
at an angle to the axis 0. Rays that pass through the centre of a lens of
focal length f are focused at a point with distance f tan 0 from the axis.
Rays passing through the outer margins of the lens are focused at
different points, either further from the axis (positive coma) or closer
to the axis (negative coma). In general, a bundle of parallel rays
passing through the lens at a fixed distance from the centre of the lens
are focused to a ring-shaped image in the focal plane, known as a
comatic circle. The sum of all these circles results in a V-shaped or
comet-like flare. As with spherical aberration, coma can be minimized
(and in some cases eliminated) by choosing the curvature of the two
lens surfaces to match the application. Lenses in which both spherical
aberration and coma are minimized are called best form lenses.
4. Field Curvature - Also known as "curvature of
field" or "Petzval field curvature", is a common
optical problem that causes a flat object to appear
sharp only in a certain parts) of the frame, instead
of being uniformly sharp across the frame. This
happens due to the curved nature of optical
elements, which project the image in a curved
manner, rather than flat. As shown in figure 56 the
action of light during exposure period passes in
lens having of field curvature.
5. Distortion - Is a deviation from rectilinear
projection, a projection in which straight
lines in a scene remain straight in an
image. It is a form of optical aberration.
Although distortion can be irregular or
follow many patterns, the most commonly
encountered distortions are radially
symmetric, or approximately so, arising
from the symmetry of a photographic lens.
As shown in figure 57 to 59 the different
classification of distortion.
Classification of Distortion: 1.1 Barrel Distortion - In
barrel distortion, image magnification decreases with
distance from the optical axis. The apparent effect is
that of an image which has been mapped around
asphere (or barrel). Fisheye lenses, which take
hemispherical views, utilize this type of distortion as
a way to map an infinitely wide object plane into a
finite image area. In a zoom lens barrel distortion
appears in the middle of the lens's focal length range
and is worst at the wide-angle end of the range. As
shown above in figure 57 the photograph of lens
having of barrel distortion. 1.2 Pincushion Distortion
- Image magnification increases with the distance
The visible effect is that lines that do not go through the
centre of the image are bowed inwards, towards the
centre of the image, like a pincushion. As shown above
in figure 58 the photograph of lens having of pincushion
distortion. 1.3 Mustache Distortion - A mixture of barrel
and pincushion distortion, sometimes referred to as
mustache distortion (moustache distortion) or complex
distortion, is less common but not rare. It starts out as
barrel distortion close to the image center and gradually
turns into pincushion distortion towards the image
periphery, making horizontal lines in the top half of the
frame look like a handlebar mustache. As shown above
in figure 59 the photograph of lens having of mustache
distortion.
6. Spherical Aberration - Is an optical effect observed in an
optical device (lens, mirror, etc.) that occurs due to the
increased refraction of light rays when they strike a lens or a
reflection of light rays when they strike a mirror near its edge, in
comparison with those that strike nearer the centre. It signifies
a deviation of the device from the norm, i.e., it results in an
imperfection of the produced image. In figure 60 is a depiction
of a perfect lens without spherical aberration: all incoming rays
are focused in the focal point. The figure 61 is an example of
depicts a real lens with spherical surfaces, which produces
spherical aberration: the different rays do not meet after the
lens in one focal point. The further the rays are from the optical
axis, the closer to the lens they intersect the optical axis
(positive spherical aberration).
2.2. Types of Lenses According to their Degree of
Correction for Lens Aberrations: 2.2.1. Simple Meniscus
Lens - It is almost universally used in inexpensive
cameras. To get an image of good quality it must be used
with a separate aperture stop, reducing the aperture of
the lens and the aberrations and their effects. The stop
also selects the pencil of off-axis rays that passes through
the lens; this controls astigmatism and eliminates coma.
Spherical and chromatic aberrations and field curvature
are totally uncorrected, but are rendered tolerable by the
low speed about f/10 to f/15. Distortion is uncorrected.
The stop may be before or behind the lens, although it is
always on the concave side. If the meniscus lens is
compounded, chromatic aberration can be corrected and
spherical reduced slightly, but this is not an economical
2.2.2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens - Also known as RR
lens, is a symmetrical pair of cemented achromatic
doublets. It was introduced by Dallmeyer in 1866. At
the same time Steinheil invented a similar
construction, the Aplanat lens. The outer lens
elements of the two lens groups are concave
meniscus lens elements, the inner lens elements are
convex meniscus lens elements, made of another
glass sort. This lens construction reduces effectively
radial distortion. As shown in figure 63 the rapid
rectilinear lens.
2.2.3. Anastigmatic Lens - Also known as
anastigmat lens is a photographic lens
completely corrected for spherical aberration,
coma, and astigmatism. Early lenses often
include the word Anastigmat in their name to
advertise this new feature (Doppel-Anastigmat,
Voigtlander Anastigmat Skopar, etc.) All modern
photographic lenses are close to being
anastigmatic. The first Anastigmat was
designed by Paul Rudolph for the Carl Zeiss AG
in 1890. As shown in figure 64 and 65 the
2.2.4. Achromatic Lens - Also known as
achromat lens, is a lens that is designed to
limit the effects of chromatic and spherical
aberration. Achromatic lenses are corrected
to bring two wavelengths (typically red and
blue) into focus in the same plane. The
most common type of achromat is the
achromatic doublet, which is composed of
two individual lenses made from glasses
with different amounts of dispersion.
Typically, one element is a negative
(concave) element made out of flint glass
such as F2, which has relatively high
dispersion, and the other is a positive
(convex) element made of crown glass such
as BK7, which has lower dispersion. The
lens elements are mounted next to each
other, often cemented together, and shaped
so that the chromatic aberration of one is
counterbalanced by that of the other. As
shown in figure 66 the achromatic lens.
Focal Length - Is the distance
between the center of the lens and
the film when an in-focus image is
formed of an object very far away.
The focal length of a camera lens is
displayed on the barrel of the lens
along with measurement of the
largest aperture and the maker. It is
measured in millimeters. The focal
length of a lens establishes the field
of view of the camera. The shorter
the focal length is, the larger the
The magnification factor of the
picture of the picture of an
object and the object's actual
size can be found by dividing
the focal length of the camera
lens used by the focal length of
a standard lens. As shown in
figure 67 the internal
illustration of focal length. And
in figure 68 is the indicator of
focal length in the lens barrel
2.3. Types of Lenses According to Focal
Length: 2.3.1. Wide Angle Lens - Refers to a
lens whose focal length is substantially
smaller than the focal length of a normal lens
for a given film plane. This type of lens allows
more of the scene to be included in the
photograph, which is useful in architectural,
interior and landscape photography where the
photographer may not be able to move farther
from the scene to photograph
Another use is where the photographer wishes to
emphasize the difference in size or distance
between objects in the foreground and the
background; nearby objects appear very large and
objects. at a moderate distance appear small and
far away. This exaggeration of relative size can be
used to make foreground objects more prominent
and striking, while capturing expansive
backgrounds. The focal length of a wide angle lens
is any measurement less than 50 mm, but is
typically 28 mm. As shown in figure 69 the wide
angle lens.
Standard Lens - Also known as a normal lens, is one which
produces an image that roughly matches what the human
eye sees, and which looks natural to the viewer. Standard
lenses have an angle of view of around 50 to 55 degrees
diagonally. This is roughly the same as the angle that the
human eye can comfortably view, which is why it gives a
natural looking perspective. Normal lens make great
general purpose lens, and can be used to photograph
everything from close-up portraits to landscapes. They
tend to be very fast lenses (i.e. they have a wide
aperture), making them great for indoor and low-light
photography. The focal length of a normal lens is
approximately 50 mm. As shown in figure 70 the standard
2.3.3. Telephoto Lens - Is a specific type of
a long-focus lens in which the physical
length of the lens is shorter than the focal
length. This is achieved by incorporating a
special lens group known as a telephoto
group that extends the light path to create
a long-focus lens in a much shorter overall
design. It's essential function is to bring
distant objects closer or bigger. The focal
length of a telephoto lens ranges from 60
to 1000 mm. As shown in figure 71 the
telephoto lens.
2.3.4. Zoom Lens - Is a mechanical assembly of lens
elements for which the focal length can be varied, as
opposed to a fixed focal length (FFL) lens. A true zoom
lens, also called a parfocal lens, is one that maintains
focus when its focal length changes. A lens that loses
focus during zooming is more properly called a varifocal
lens. Despite being marketed as zoom ienses, virtually
all consumer lenses with variable focal lengths use
varifocal design. Zoom lenses achieve this convenience
through compromises on image quality, weight,
dimensions, aperture, autofocus performance (both
speed and accuracy), build quality, and cost of
manufacture. As shown in figure 72 the zoom lens.
3. FILM HOLDER - It holds the film set up at the
camera's back. It is configuration to hold the film level
so that the picture delivered by the lens will be sharp
over the entire picture territory. In most move film
cameras the film compartment is spot into the
camera's back and a spring mounted weight plate
place in the back front of the camera this weight plate
keeps the film level over the photo region opening. As
shown in figure 73 the components of film holder.
Components of Film Holder: 3.1. Rewind Fork - This is
connected on the film rewind knob and crank. It holds the
long spool core inside the film cartridge and fixed well the
film inside the film cartridge chamber. When you rotate the
crank on the direction of an arrow the rewind knob will also
rotate and the exposed film from film take up spool will
restore winding the long spool core inside the film cartridge.
(See figure 73) 3.2. Film Cartridge Chamber - This
component of film holder is necessary to load the film firmly.
It is the canal area located at left side at the back of the
camera wherein at the top portion the rewind fork comes
out when the film cartridge is already loaded on it. (See
figure 73) 3.3. Film Guide Rails - This is a tiny protrude
fragmentary metals found at the top and bottom area of the
focal plane shutter window, both edges of the film lied on it
This is necessary for guiding the film during advancing and rewinding to fix
its respective frame in the focal plane shutter window for the proper
recording of the image during exposure. (See figure 73) 3.4. Film Sprockets -
This another component of the film holder, situated at the right side inside
the camera back before the film take up spool. It is necessary for the film to
move during advancing and rewinding which anchored on both up and down
perforations of the film. (See figure 73) 3.5. Film Take up Spool - This is
located usually on the right side of the focal plane of the camera after the
film sprocket. The film tongue or leader is inserted on it during loading. At
the same time it is connected on the film advancer, in every clicking of the
film advancer after exposure the exposed frame of the film in the focal plane
shutter window will transferred on it through winding and then the
unexposed frame of the film will replace to its shutter window. (See figure
73) 3.6. Film Pressure Plates - After loading of the film and then the camera
back will be close to protect the film against unnecessary quantity of light
which might destroyed. It is located at the camera back designed to make
the exposed emulsion of the frame of the film flat on the focal plane shutter
window through with that image of the object being photographed will be
4. SHUTTER - Is a device that allows light to pass for a
determine period, exposing photographic film or a light-
sensitive electronic sensor to light in order to capture a
permanent image of a scene. A shutter can also be used to
allow pulses of light to pass outwards, as seen in a movie
projector or a signal lamp.

Several Types of Camera Shutter: 4.1. Leaf Shutter - Also called

between the lens shutter or lens-plane shutters or central
shutter, operate between the elements of the lens, or the
materials that make up the lens. These camera shutters are
composed of a round metal casing that holds a set of blades in
its center. The blades remain closed tightly to block out light
until a release is pressed, causing the blades to spring back
over the metal casing. This reveals an opening for light to pass
Several Types of Camera Shutter: 4.1. Leaf
Shutter - Also called between the lens shutter or
lens-plane shutters or central shutter, operate
between the elements of the lens, or the
materials that make up the lens. These camera
shutters are composed of a round metal casing
that holds a set of blades in its center. The
blades remain closed tightly to block out light
until a release is pressed, causing the blades to
spring back over the metal casing. This reveals
an opening for light to pass through for a
designated amount of time. As shown in figure
74 and 75 the locations of leaf shutter.
4.2. Focal Plane Shutter - Are situated toward the back of the
camera directly in front of the film, or the focal plane of the
camera. These mechanisms are typically composed of a set of
curtains that open to reveal a slot through light can travel, and
then close to block out light. The length of exposure is
determined by how far the curtains open. If the first curtain
opens fully before the second curtain closes, the exposure is
longer. If the first curtain only partially reveals the slot before the
second curtain closes, the exposure will be longer. In more simple
designs, there is only one curtain with several different sized
slots cut out. The curtain passes over the focal plane, exposing
the film for the length of time it takes the width of the slot to
pass. Narrower slots allow for shorter exposure, while wider slots
give a longer exposure. The curtains are usually made of cloth,
though some cameras may have metal focal plane shutter.
Because the focal plane shutter is not placed within the lens, it is
often used in cameras that take interchangeable lenses.
The length of exposure can also be more controlled and
much faster with foca plane shutter than with central
shutters, allowing for high speed photography. Central
shutters are generally more able to synchronize exposure
time with the use of flash than focal plane shutter.
Central shutter are also simpler and cheaper to construct,
so they are often available on less expensive cameras.
The two lenses may be combined in the same camera to
avoid problems with flash photography or fast moving
subjects, which may become distorted when using only a
focal plane shutter. Specialized focal plane shutter have
also been designed to address these problems. Electro-
optical shutter are sometimes used to sidestep issues
with flash synchronization and fast moving subjects. A
revolving drum shutter can be used to get panoramic
pictures without distortion. As shown in figure 76 and 77
NOMENCLATURE OF PARTS OF FILM-
BASED CAMERA In the study of
photography it is very important to
identify and knows the functions of
every parts of camera for better
operation during photographing. As
shown in figure 78 is the front view of
the nomenclature of the various parts of
film-based camera and in figure 79 is its
rear view.
TYPES OF CAMERA 1. Viewfinder Camera - Today there is a wide range
of compact cameras with automatic exposure cameras with automatic
exposure controls and fully automatic focusing. Light enters the
viewfinder directly to allow the photographer to frame and compose
the picture. The photograph is taken through the main lens however
the view from the lens and the viewfinder is slightly different, this
difference is called parallax error. Some compact cameras have a zoom
lens; these models are often fitted with zoom viewfinders that mimic
the lens. Parallax error increases as the subject gets nearer to the
camera therefore some viewfinders have close-up frames marked on
the viewing screen to enable the subject to be framed. Before the
widespread use of autofocus the coupled rangefinder was an
important camera design. The rangefinder camera has two windows on
the front, instead of the usual one; this enables two overlapping views
to be seen on the focusing screen. The rangefinder is coupled to the
focusing ring of the lens. Moving the focusing ring on the lens causes
the overlapping images to move in the viewfinder. When they coincide
exactly the subject is in perfect focus. As shown in figure 80 is the
viewing mechanism of viewfinder camera and in figure 81 is its
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera - The mirror in a single lens reflex
(SLR) camera reflects light upwards through a pentaprism to be
viewed. The pentaprism turns the image the right way round
for the eye to see. When a picture is taken the mirror flips up to
allow light to hit the film at the back of the camera. As the eyes
seem the image through the main lens it appears identical to
that produced on the film. The cutaway diagram on the left
shows the complex construction of a modern single lens reflex
camera. In this camera some lights passes through the main
mirror, bounces off a smaller secondary mirror and enters the
camera's metering system. A flexible electronic circuit board is
fitted inside the camera body. As shown in figure 82 the
viewing mechanism of single lens reflex camera and in figure
83 is its exterior appearance.
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera - The twin lens reflex
camera has a separate viewing and taking lens,
one over the other. Light entering the top lens is
reflected up by a fixed mirror to a viewing screen.
The image appears reversed on the screen. As the
eye is not looking at the image through the main
lens parallax error, as with a viewfinder camera, is
introduced. As shown in figure 84 is the viewing
mechanism of twin lens reflex camera and in
figure 85 is its exterior appearance.
4. View Camera - With a view camera light
comes directly from the subject through the
main lens and is viewed via a focusing screen
at the back of the camera. The lens reverses
the image so it appears upside down;
otherwise it is identical to what will appear
on the film. Before a picture is taken the
viewing screens is replaced by a film holder.
As shown in figure 86 is the viewing
mechanism of view camera and in figure 87 is
its exterior appearance.
S. Digital Camera - Digital cameras are becoming more popular and a
number of designs are on the market. As digital cameras use
electronics to capture and store the image they are not restricted to
the traditional camera designs incorporating film transport
mechanisms. Therefore their size and shape often vary greatly. Digital
cameras usually incorporate an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) viewing
screen that displays the scene viewed through the lens. However as
this process takes power from the battery and the refresh rate of the
viewing system is quite slow an alternative direct viewfinder is often
provided. Digital cameras, in their simplest form, use the principle of
lens, shutter and film as found in traditional cameras. However
instead of silver halide based film, as described in Chemical Image
Processing, the image in digital cameras is usually captured by a
block-array Charged Coupled Device (CCD) or Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) sensor. A block-array image sensor is a
matrix of light sensitive receptors. These receptors produce a
continuous analogue electrical signal which is passed through an
The ADC translates the fluctuations of the sensor into digital signals.
After adjustment and compression the image is usually stored on a
removal storage device, for example compact flash or secure digital.
The image recording mechanism within some digital cameras have
variable speed ratings like silver based films. The normal speed or
sensitivity of the sensor can be increased by an amplification process.
Due to the relatively small size of a block-array sensors a digital
camera's standard lens, as described in Focusing Light is about 24mm.
The standard lens for a 35mm camera is 50mm and significant lens
distortion can be introduced with very short focal length lenses that
have not been specifically designed for use with digital cameras. For
specialist applications "scan backs" are available for larger format
cameras. These cameras place a scanner type linear array sensor in the
film plane. Although increased resolution can be obtained there is an
increase in time taken to record the image. Therefore "scan back"
cameras are only suitable for still life photography. As shown in figure
88 is the viewing mechanism of digital camera and in figure 89 is its
ACCESSORIES OF THE CAMERA 1. Tripod - It is used
to stabilize and elevate a camera, a flash unit, or
other photographic equipment. All photographic
tripods have three legs and a mounting head to
couple with a camera. The mounting head usually
includes a thumbscrew that mates to a female
threaded receptacle on the camera, as well as a
mechanism to be able to rotate and tilt the camera
when it is mounted on tripod. Tripod is usually
made from aluminum, carbon fiber, steel, wood or
plastic. As shown in figure 90 is the tripod and in
figure 91 is the tripod attached on the tripod socket
of camera.
 project 02.

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Cable Release - Is an attachment that screws into a
shutter release, allowing you to trip the shutter
mechanically while being isolated from the camera to
reduce camera shake or to operate the camera from a
distance. A cable release is especially useful for long
exposures with the camera mounted on a tripod. Most
cable releases consist of a flexible tube, usually made
from a spiral of metal covered in rubber, or plastic,
sometimes with a fabric outer sleeve. A steel cable runs
through the tube, from a press-button at one end to a
piston to press the release at the camera end. As
shown in figure 92 is the cable release and in figure 93
is the cable release attached on the shutter release
3. Flash Units - It is a device in photography producing a flash of
artificial light to help illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a
flash is to illuminate a dark scene. Other uses are capturing
quickly moving objects or changing the quality of light. Flash
refers either to the flash of light itself or to the electronic flash
unit discharging the light. Most current flash units are electronic,
having evolved from single-use flashbulbs and flammable
powders. Modern cameras often activate flash units
automatically. Flash units are commonly built directly into a
camera. Some cameras allow separate flash units to be mounted
via a standardized "accessory mount" bracket (hot shoe). In
professional studio equipment, flashes may be large, standalone
units, or studio strobes, powered by special battery packs or
connected to mains power. They are either synchronized with the
camera using a flash synchronization cable or radio signal, or are
light-triggered, meaning that only one flash unit needs to be
synchronized with the camera and in turn triggers the other units
called slaves. As shown in figure 94 is the flash unit and in figure
3. Flash Units - It is a device in photography producing a flash of artificial
light to help illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a flash is to illuminate
a dark scene. Other uses are capturing quickly moving objects or changing
the quality of light. Flash refers either to the flash of light itself or to the
electronic flash unit discharging the light. Most current flash units are
electronic, having evolved from single-use flashbulbs and flammable
powders. Modern cameras often activate flash units automatically. Flash
units are commonly built directly into a camera. Some cameras allow
separate flash units to be mounted via a standardized "accessory mount"
bracket (hot shoe). In professional studio equipment, flashes may be
large, standalone units, or studio strobes, powered by special battery
packs or connected to mains power. They are either synchronized with the
camera using a flash synchronization cable or radio signal, or are light-
triggered, meaning that only one flash unit needs to be synchronized with
the camera and in turn triggers the other units called slaves. As shown in
figure 94 is the flash unit and in figure 95 is the flash unit attached on the
hot shoe contact of the camera.
4. Light Meter - Also known as exposure meter. A
light meter is a device used to measure the
amount of light. In photography, a light meter is
often used to determine the proper exposure for
a photograph. Typically a light meter will include
either digital or analog electronic circuit, which
allows the photographer to determine which
shutter speed and f-number should be selected
for an optimum exposure, given a certain
lighting situation and film speed. As shown in
figure 96 and 97 is the light meter.
Extension Tube - Also known as extension ring.
Is a deceptively simple looking apparatus; it is
nothing more than a hollow cylinder that is
placed between the camera body and a lens in
order to create more distance between the
camera sensor and the lens. This increased
distance allows the lens to focus more closely
on a subject and enhances magnification level.
As shown in figure 98 is the series of extension
tube and in figure 99 is the extension tube
attached in between the lens and camera.
6. Filter - Are transparent or
translucent glass or gelatin elements
that attach to the front of a lens. They
protect the camera lens, alter the
characteristics of light passing through
the lens or add special effects and
colors to an image. As shown in figure
100 is the different filters and in figure
101 is the filter attached on the lens
board of the camera.
Classification of Filters: 6.1 Clear Filter - Also known as
window glass filter or optical flats are transparent and ideally
perform no filtering of incoming light. The only use of a clear
filter is to protect the front of a lens. 6.2 UV/ Ultraviolet Filter
- Are used to block invisible ultraviolet light, to which most
photographic sensors and film are at least slightly sensitive.
The ultraviolet is typically recorded as if it were blue light, so
this nonhuman ultraviolet sensitivity can result in an
unwanted exaggeration of the bluish tint of atmospheric haze
or, even more unnaturally, of subjects in open shade lit by the
ultraviolet-rich sky. 6.3 Color Conversion Filter - Are used to
compensate for the effects of lighting not balanced for the
film stocks rated color temperature (usually 3200 K for
professional tungsten and 5500 K for daylight): e.g.,
 the 80A blue fiter used with film for daylight use corrects
the perceived orange/reddish cast of incandescent
photographic photoflood lighting (for which the usual
photographic term is "tungsten lighting"), and significantly
improves the stronger cast produced by lower-temperature
household incandescent lighting, while the 85B will correct
the bluish cast of daylight photographs on tungsten film.
Color correction filters are identified by non-standardized
numbers which vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The need for these filters has been greatly reduced by the
widespread adoption of digital photography, since color
balance may be corrected with camera settings as the
image is captured, or by software manipulation afterwards.
6.4 Color Subtraction Filter - Work by absorbing certain
colors of light, letting the remaining colors through. They
can be used to demonstrate the primary colors that make
up an image. They are perhaps most frequently used in the
printing industry for color separations, and again, use has
diminished as digital solutions have become more
advanced and abundant. 6.5 Contrast Enhancement Filter -
Also known as colored filter are commonly used in black
and white photography to alter the effect of different
colors in the scene, changing contrast recorded in black
and white of the different colors. For example, a yellow or,
more dramatically, orange or red, filter will enhance the
contrast between clouds and sky by darkening the blue
A deep green filter will also darken the sky,
and additionally lighten green foliage, making
it stand out against the sky. A blue filter
mimics the effect of older orthochromatic
film, or even older film sensitive only to blue
light, rendering blue as light and red and
green as dark, showing blue skies as overcast
with no contrast between sky and clouds,
darkening blond hair, and making blue eyes
nearly white and red lips nearly black.
Diffusion filters reduce contrast in addition to
softening resolution.
66 pole photograpty, IS colores at colar and back and
white photography, isco light wand does not affect
color balance, but filters out liuce with a particular
directon of polarization. This recane dakenue
renections from non-metallic in morochrame aren the
sky in ron photography in monochrome photography
color filters are more effective, and can saturate the
image more by eliminating unwanted relections,
Linear polariting filters, while effeniens whenerfere
with metering and auto-focus mechanisms when
mirrors or beam-spitters are in the light path, as in
the digital single lens reflex camera; a circular
polanizer is also effective, and does not affect
6.7 Neutral Density Filter - is a fiter of uniform density which
attenuates light of all colors equally. It is used to allow a longer
exposure (to create blur) or larger aperture (for selective focus)
than otherwise required for correct exposure in the prevailing
light conditions, without changing the tonal balance of the
photograph. A graduated neutral density filter is a neutral
density filter with different attenuation at different points;
typically clear in one half shading into a higher density in the
other. It can be used, for example, to photograph a scene with
part in deep shadow and part brightly lit, where otherwise
either the shadows would have no detail or the highlights
would be burnt out. 6.8 Cross Screen Filter - Also known as a
star filter creates a star pattern, in which lines radiate outward
from bright objects. The star pattern is generated by a very
fine diffraction granting embedded in the filter, as does the
number of point each star has.
6.9 Diffusion Filter - Also called a softening
filter. Soften the subjects and generates a
dreamy haze. This is most often used for
portraits. It also has the effect of reducing
contrast, and the filters are designed,
labeled, sold, ano used for that purpose too.
There are many ways of accomplishing this
effect, and thus filters from different
manufacturers vary significantly. The two
primary approaches are to use some form of
grid or netting in the filter, or to use
something which is transparent but not
7. Lens Hood - Also known as lens shade, Is a
device used on the front end of a lens to block the
sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens
flare. Lens hoods may also be used to protect the
lens from scratches and the elements without
having to put on a lens cover. The geometry of a
lens hood is dependent on three things: the focal
length of the lens, the size of the front lens
element and the dimensions of the image sensor or
film in the camera. As shown in figure 102 the
different lens hood and In figure 103 the lens hood
attached on the camera.
CONTROL ON A CAMERA 1. FOCUSING CONTROL
- This is the most important control in a
camera. Focus is the means by which the object
distance is estimated or calculated to form
sharp or clear images. Three Types of Focusing
Devices: 1.1 Rangefinder Type - Is a mechanism
used to measure the angle of convergence of
light as seen from two apertures or opening but
viewed at the same time. In modern cameras,
the range finder is coupled with viewfinders.
Two Types of Rangefinder: 1.1,1 Coincidence Type -
With this type, the objects being photographed
appeared double when the focusing control is not on
its proper distance, any by moving this control, one of
the object will move and coincide with the other object
that will show of the single object formed and focusing
control is therefore accurate. As shown in figure 104
the single object it appeared as double indicative of
out of focus set-up of the focusing ring, while in figure
105 through the rotation of focusing ring from the
former which is double one of the object move and
coincide with the other become single indicative of in
focus.
.1.2 Split Type - With this type of focusing control,
the object is split into two parts when the lens is
out of focused. While moving the focusing control,
the split image will move and unite to form
undivided images of the object, and then the
focusing control is set properly. As shown in figure
106 the object split into two parts indicative of out
of focus set-up of the focusing ring, and while in
figure 107 through the rotation of focusing ring
from the former which is divided will move and
unite to form undivided images indicative of in
focus.
1.2 Ground Glass Type - The ground glass focusing
control can be seen on the viewing screen of the camera.
During the photographing, the images of the objects
being photographed will appear blurred when the
focusing control is not accurately set. By adjusting the
focusing mechanism of the camera, the objects being
photographed will become clearer and clearer until the
clearest of the objects appeared in the viewing screen
which will indicate that the focusing control is properly
set. As shown in figure 108 the object is blurred
indicative of out of focus set-up of the focusing ring,
while in figure 109 through the rotation of focusing ring
from the former which is blurred it become cleared
1.3 Scale Bed Tys of the camera caof fecusing control, the
focusing mechanism of the camera can be adjusted by
means of estimation or calculation of the objects distance
and the camera. Here the photographer wil estimate the
distance of the object to be photographed and then, he will
set focusing control of the camera based on his estimation.
If he had estimated the distance of the object and the
camera as 10 feet, then the setting of the focusing will be
10 feet. In this particular system of control, the camera
manufacturers gave an allowable error of plus and minus
five feet of the estimated distance. On the mount on barrel
of the camera lens there are two sets of pre-setted
distance expressed in feet (ft) and meters (m). As shown in
figure 110 the distance scales in the lens barrel for scale
In figure 111 the exact distance is 10 feet and also the
estimated distance as well indicative of in focus. In figure
112 the exact distance of the object away from the camera
is 10 feet while the estimated distance is only 5 feet which
come up short, however this shortcomings is not a
problem because it is covered of allowable error which is
minus 5 feet of the estimated distance from the exact
distance given by camera manufacturers so still in focus.
Likewise in figure 113 the estimated distance of 10 feet go
beyond with the exact distance of 5 feet which still in
focus under the said allowable error of plus 5 feet. And
lastly in figure 114 and 115 are out of focus since they are
not anymore cover by the glen allowable error of plus and
minus 5 feet of the estimated distance from the exact
2. SHUTTER SPEED CONTROL - The length of the time that the
rays of light will reach and affect the sensitized material (film)
can be controlled by the shutter speed control of the camera.
There are several factors to be considered in using this
control. Some of these factors are the light sensitivity of the
film which one determine thru its ASA numbers, the motion of
the subjects on different angles, the purpose of the
photographs to be taken and others. Based on these factors,
the photographer must set the shutter speed control of his
camera before photographing an object. Usually the film
manufacturers gave the exposure guide for every particular
film they manufactured. Said guide must religiously followed
by the photographers in their photographing, otherwise the
result of the negative after development is either over
The action of the shutter is expressed in the different
shutter speeds which correspond to the length of time
or duration of the opening to the closing of the
shutter. The higher the shutter speed number the
shorter the opening duration of the shutter then
afterwards close for that matter the less quantity of
light reaching on the emulsion of film. While the lower
the shutter speed number the longer the opening
period of the shutter before will close and the more
amount of light can affect on the film. The series of
shutter speeds will show that one shutter speed is
twice faster or slower than the next shutter speed. As
shown in figure 116 the shutter speed dial (scale).
Standards Shutter Speeds: • 1000 - The shutter is open within
one over one thousand of a second. It admits light inside the
camera reaching on the emulsion of film one time (1X) smaller
quantity than 1/500. • 500 - The shutter is open within one over
five hundred of a second. It admits light inside the camera
reaching on the emulsion of film two times (2X) bigger quantity
than 1/1000. • 250 - The shutter is open within one over two
hundred fifty of a second. It admits light inside the camera
reaching on the emulsion of film four times (4X) bigger quantity
than 1/1000. • 125 - The shutter is open within one over one
hundred twenty five of a second. It admits light inside the camera
reaching on the emulsion of film eight times (8X) bigger quantity
than 1/1000. • 60 - The shutter is open within one sixty of a
second. It admits light inside the camera reaching on the
emulsion of film sixteen times (16X) bigger quantity than 1/1000.
• 30 - The shutter is open within one thirty of a second. It admits
light inside the camera reaching on the emulsion of film thirty-
• 15 - The shutter is open within one fifteen of a second. It
admits light inside the camera reaching on the emulsion of
film sixty-four times (64X) bigger quantity than 1/1000. • 8 -
The shutter is open within one eight of a second. It admits
light inside the camera reaching on the emulsion of film one-
hundred twenty-eight times (128X) bigger quantity than
1/1000. • 4 - The shutter is open within one fourth of a
second. It admits light inside the camera reaching on the
emulsion of film two-hundred fifty-six times (256X) bigger
quantity than 1/1000. • 2 - The shutter is open within one half
of a second. It admits light inside the camera reaching on the
emulsion of film five-hundred twelve times (512X) bigger
quantity than 1/1000.
• 1 - The shutter is open within one second. It admits light
inside the camera reaching on the emulsion of film one-
thousand twenty-four times (1024X) bigger quantity than
1/1000. B - Means Bulb, keeps the shutter open as long as
the shutter release button is held. It admits light inside the
camera reaching on the emulsion of film at a desire length
of time until the shutter release button had been release. •
T - Means Time, keeps the shutter opens once the shutter
release button had been depressed until the shutter
release button is pressed again. It admits light inside the
camera reaching on the emulsion of film at a desire length
of time until the shutter release button had been pressed
again.
3. DIAPHRAGM CONTROL - A diaphragm is a thin opaque structure with
an opening (aperture) at its center. The role of the diaphragm is to stop
the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture.
Thus is also called a stop (an aperture stop, if it limits the brightness of
light reaching the focal plane, or a field stops or flare stop for other
uses of diaphragms in lenses). The diaphragm is placed in the light path
of a lens or objective, and the size of the aperture regulates the amount
of light that passes through the lens. The centre of the diaphragm's
aperture coincides with the optical axis of the lens system. While on the
other hand, aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels.
More specifically, the aperture and focal length of an optical system
determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the
image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays
are, which is of great importance for the appearance at the image
plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are
admitted, resulting in a sharp focus at the image plane. A wide aperture
admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays
coming from a certain distance.
This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for
things at the correct distance. The aperture also determines how
many of the incoming rays are actually admite and thus how much
light tree ches ming mage plane or emusion of fim. In the human
eye, the pupil is the aperture. It may enlarge or contracted. If it is
enlarged, it allow more light to enter, on the contrary, when it is
contracted or small, it allow lesser lights to enter. The adjustment is
done by moving the ring of the diaphragm towards the desired size
of opening. It is generally represented by numbers known as the f-
stop. In every movement, the f-number will stop to indicate the
diaphragm is set to that number. Very common, these numbers are
found on the ring outside the lens barrel. The common f-number or f-
stop observable today is from f/1.4 which is the widest up to f/22
which is the smallest. As the diaphragm opening is change from f/1.4
up to f/22, the opening of the lens will change from the biggest to
smallest. Such changes are so apparent and noticeable when
observed properly. The diaphragm of any camera lens can control the
depth of field that affect the focus or sharpness of the objects being
As the lens opening decrease in size more
sharpness of the objects being photographed
will appear. However, when the lens opening
increases in size, the zone of sharpness
decreases and other details of the objects
being photographed will not appear as seen by
the naked eye. As shown in figure 117 is the
illustration of diaphragm and aperture of lens.
And in figure 118 is the aperture ring bearing
of different f-numbers with its respective sizes
of aperture.
f - Numbers - Sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-stop,
or relative aperture of an optical system is the ratio of the
lens focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil. It
is a dimensionless number that is a quantitative measure
of lens speed, and an important concept in photography.
The number is commonly notated using a hooked f, i.e.
f/N, where N is the f-number. The f-number N or f is given
by: N Where f is the focal length and D is the diameter of
the entrance pupil (effective aperture). It is customary to
write f-numbers preceded by f/, which forms a
mathematical expression of the entrance pupil diameter
in terms of f and N. For example, if lens focal length is 10
mm and its entrance pupil diameter is 5 mm, the f-
number is 2, expressed by writing "f/2", and the aperture
diameter is equal to f/2, where f is the focal length.
• f/22 - The size of aperture here is one time (1X) smaller
than f/16 as well as the quantity of light that passes in
lens. • f/16 - The size of aperture here is two times (2X)
bigger than f/22 as well as the quantity of light that passes
in lens. • f/11 - The size of aperture here is four times (4X)
bigger f - Numbers - Sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-
stop, or relative aperture of an optical system is the ratio
of the lens focal length to the diameter of the entrance
pupil. It is a dimensionless number that is a quantitative
measure of lens speed, and an important concept in
photography. The number is commonly notated using a
hooked f, i.e. f/N, where N is the f-number. The f-number N
or f is given by: N
Where f is the focal length and D is the diameter of the
entrance pupil (effective aperture). It is customary to write
f-numbers preceded by f/, which forms a mathematical
expression of the entrance pupil diameter in terms of f and
N. For example, if lens focal length is 10 mm and its
entrance pupil diameter is 5 mm, the f-number is 2,
expressed by writing "f/2", and the aperture diameter is
equal to f/2, where f is the focal length. Standard f-
Numbers: • f/22 - The size of aperture here is one time (1X)
smaller than f/16 as well as the quantity of light that
passes in lens. • f/16 - The size of aperture here is two
times (2X) bigger than f/22 as well as the quantity of light
that passes in lens. • f/11 - The size of aperture here is
DEPTH OF FIELD Is also called focus range or effective focus range
is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a
scene that appear acceptably Sharp in an image. Although a lens
can precisely focus at only one distance at a time, the decrease in
sharpness is gradual on each side of the focused distance, so that
within the depth of field, the unsharpness is imperceptible under
normal viewing conditions. In some cases, it may be desirable to
have the entire image sharp, and a large depth of field is
appropriate. In other cases, a small depth of field may be more
effective, emphasizing the subject while de-emphasizing the
foreground and background. A large depth of field is often called
deep focus and a small depth of field is often called shallow focus.
As shown in figure 119 is a 35 mm lens set to f/11. The depth of
field scale indicates that a subject which is anywhere between 1
and 2 meters in front of the camera will be rendered acceptably
sharp. If the aperture were set to f/22 instead, everything from
just over 0.7 meters almost to infinity would appear to be in focus.
And in figure 120 is the area within the depth of field appears
FACTORS AFFECTING DEPTH OF FIELD There are several factors
affecting the depth of field such as subject matter, camera
movement, camera to subject distance, lens focal length,
selected lens f-number, format size, and circle of confusion
criteria also influence when a given defocus becomes
noticeable. The combination of focal length, subject distance
and format size defines magnification at the film or sensor
plane. Depth of field is determined by subject magnification at
the film or sensor plane and the selected lens aperture or f-
number. A given f-number, increasing the magnification, either
by moving closer to the subject or using a lens of greater focal
length, decreases the depth of field; decreasing magnification
increases depth of field. For a given subject magnification,
increasing the f-number (decreasing the aperture diameter)
increases the depth of field; decreasing f-number decreases
If the original image is enlarged to make the
final image, the circle of confusion in the
original image must be smaller than that in
the final image by the ratio of enlargement.
Cropping an image and enlarging to the same
size final image as an uncropped image taken
under the same, so the cropped image has
less depth of field. When focus is set to the
hyperfocal distance, the depth of field
extends from half the hyperfocal distance to
infinity, and the depth of field is the largest
possible for a given f-number.