PLASTICS JOINING

1
The word plastics is from the Greek word Plastikos,
meaning “able to be shaped and molded”

2
Plastics
 Polymer - a single building
block (mer) is repeated to (Poly)ethylene
form a long chain molecule
 Thermoplastic polymers H H
soften when heated, harden C=C
when cooled
H H
 2-liter bottles
 Thermosetting polymers HH
don’t soften when heated
 Car tires ··· -C-C- ···
HH

3
Polymer = Poly (Numerous) + Mer (Chemical Unit)
= Numerous Repeating Chemical Unit

Bond status:
Covalent bond (Within the chain) + Secondary bond (Between chains)

Plastics are classified into Thermoplastic, Thermoset and Rubber

depending on cross-link.

Since thermoplastic can be remelt, it is further classified into

Amorphous and Semi-Crystalline depending on the cooling rate.

amorphous semi-crystalline
generally flexible generally rigid
more likely be transparent more compact and ordered structure
at T>Tg, viscosity changes more likely be opaque
gradually higher working and processing temp.
T>Tg for welding more solvent-resistance
T>Tm for welding

4
 Why Design with Plastics?
• Light weight, high weight to • Relatively low cost compared
strength ratio, particularly when to metals and composites
reinforced

Density Cost
5
Why Design with Plastics?
 Corrosion resistance
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity, insulator
 Easily formed into complex shapes, can be formed,
casted and joined.
 Wide choice of appearance, colors and
transparencies

6
Disadvantages of using Plastics

 Low strength
 Low useful temperature range (up to 120 oC)
 Less dimensional stability over period of time (creep
effect)
 Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over time
 Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
 Poor machinability

7
8
Mechanical Properties of Various Plastics

Steel: 350 to 1900 MPa Brass: 200 to 850 MPa

Aluminum: 100 to 550 MPa
9
Polymers
• The earliest synthetic polymer was developed in 1906, called Bakelite.

• The development of modern plastics started in 1920s using raw

material extracted from coal and petroleum products (Ethylene).
Ethylene is called a building block.

• Polymers are long-chain molecules and are formed by polymerization

process, linking and cross linking a particular building block (monomer, a
unit cell).

• The term polymer means many units repeated many times in a

chainlike structure.

• Most monomers are organic materials, atoms are joined in covalent

bonds (electron-sharing) with other atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen, sulphur, chlorine,….

10
Classification of polymers
There are two major classifications of polymers

Thermoplastics
As the temperature is raised above the melting point, the secondary bonds
weaken, making it easier to form the plastic into any desired shape. When
polymer is cooled, it returns to its original strength and hardness. The process
is reversible. Polymers that show this behavior are known as thermoplastics.

Thermosetting Plastics (thermosets)

Thermosetting plastics are cured into permanent shape. Cannot be re-melted to
the flowable state that existed before curing, continued heating for a long time
leads to degradation or decomposition. This curing (cross-linked) reaction is
irreversible. Thermosets generally have better mechanical, thermal and
chemical properties. They also have better electrical resistance and dimensional
stability than do thermoplastics.

11
 Polymer’s Structures
Bonding – monomers are linked together by covalent bonds, forming a
polymer chain (primary bonds). The polymer chains are held together by
secondary bonds. The strength of polymers comes in part from the
length of polymer chains. The longer the chain, the stronger the polymer.
More energy is needed to overcome the secondary bonds.

Branched polymers
Linear polymers

Side branch chains are attached to the

A sequential structure resulting in main chain which interferes with the
thermoplastics like nylon, acrylic, relative movement of the molecular chains.
polyethylene. A linear polymer This results in an increase in strength,
may contain some branched and deformation resistance and stress cracking
cross-linked chains resulting in resistance.
change in properties.
Lower density than linear chain polymers.
12
 Polymer’s Structures

Cross-linked polymers
Three dimensional structure, adjacent chains are linked
by covalent bonds. Polymers with cross-linked chains
are called thermosetting plastics (thermosets), epoxy
and Silicones.
Cross-linking is responsible for providing hardness,
strength, brittleness and better dimensional stability.

Network polymers
A three dimensional network of three or more
covalent bonds. Thermoplastic polymers that have
been already formed could be cross-linked to
obtain higher strength. Polymers are exposed to
high-energy radiation.

13
Additives in Plastics
Additives are added to polymers in order to obtain or improve certain properties
such as strength, stiffness, color, resistance to weather and flammability.

Plasticizers are added to obtain flexibility and softness, most common use of
plasticizers are in PVC.

Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) and oxygen cause polymers to become stiff and
brittle, they weaken and break the primary bonds. A typical treatment is to add
carbon black (soot) to the polymer, it absorbs radiation. Antioxidants are also
added to protect against degradation.

Fillers such as fine saw dust, silica flour, calcium carbide are added to reduce
the cost and to increase harness, strength, toughness, dimensional stability...

14
Applications of Thermoplastics
Design requirement: strength

Applications: Valves, gears, cams, pistons, fan blades, …

Plastics: nylon, acetal (delrin), polycarbonate, phenolic

Design requirement: wear resistance

Applications: bearings, gears, bushings, wheels, ….

Plastics: nylon, acetal (delrin), polyurethane, phenolic, polymide

15
Applications of Thermoplastics
Design requirement: functional and decorative

Applications: knobs, handles, cases, moldings, pipe fittings, …

Plastics: ABS, acrylic, polyethylene, phenolic, polypropylene, polystyrene

Design requirement: functional and transparent

Applications: lens, goggles, signs, food processing equipment, …

Plastics: acrylic, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polysulfone

Design requirement: hollow shapes and housings

Applications: pumps, helmets, power tools, cases, …

Plastics: ABS, polyethylene, phenolic, polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate

16
Popular Plastics
Polyethylene (LDPE (low density) and HDPE (high density)
Properties: good chemical and electrical properties, strength depends on
composition

Applications: bottles, garbage cans, housewares, bumpers, toys, luggage

Acetal (Delrin)
Properties: good strength, good stiffness, good resistance to heat,
moisture, abrasion and chemicals

Applications: mechanical components; gears, bearings, valves, rollers,

bushings, housings

ABS
Properties: dimensionally stable, good strength, impact and toughness
properties, good resistance to abrasion and chemicals
Applications: automotive components, helmets, tool handles, appliances,
boat hulls, luggage, decorative panels
17
Popular Plastics
Polycarbonates
Properties: very versatile and has dimensional stability, good
mechanical and electrical properties, high resistance to impact and
chemicals
Applications: optical lenses, food processing equipments, electrical
components and insulators, medical equipments, windshields, signs,
machine components

Nylons
Properties: good mechanical and abrasion resistance property, self-
lubricating, resistant to most chemicals but it absorbs water, increase in
dimension is undesirable

Applications: mechanical components; gears, bearings, rollers, bushings,

fasteners, guides, zippers, surgical equipments,

18
Applications of Thermosetting Plastics

Epoxies
Properties: good dimensional stability, excellent mechanical and
electrical properties, good resistance to heat and chemicals

Applications: electrical components requiring strength, tools and dies, fiber

reinforced epoxies are used in structural components, tanks, pressure
vessels, rocket motor casing

Phenolics
Properties: good dimensional stability, rigid, high resistance to
heat, water, electricity, and chemicals

Applications: laminated panels, handles, knobs, electrical components;

connectors, insulators

19
Applications of Thermosetting Plastics

Polyesters (thermosetting, reinforced with glass fibers)

Properties: good mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties,
good resistance to heat and chemicals

Applications: boats, luggage, swimming pools, automotive bodies, chairs

Silicones
Properties: excellent electrical properties over a wide rang of
temperature and humidity, good heat and chemical properties

Applications: electrical components requiring strength at high temp.,

waterproof materials, heat seals

20
 Structural and mechanical Appl. Light duty mechanical & decorative
Gears, cams, pistons, rollers, fan Handles, knobs, steering wheel,
blades, rotors, pump impellers, tool handles, pipe fittings, camera
washing machine agitators cases, eyeglass frames
ABS X
Acetal (Delrin) X
Acrylic X
Cellulosics X
Fluoroplastics
Nylon X
Thermoplastics

Phenylene Oxide
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyethylene X
Polyimide
Polyenylene sulfide
Polypropylene X
Polystyrene X
Polysulfone X
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride X
Thermosets

Phenolic X X
Polyester
Polyurethane
21
 Parts for wear applications Optical and transparent parts
Gears, bearings, bushings, Lenses, safety glasses,
tracks, wheels, ware strips signs, refrigerator shelves,
windshields
ABS
Acetal (Delrin) X
Acrylic X
Cellulosics X
Fluoroplastics X
Nylon X
Thermoplastics

Phenylene Oxide
Polycarbonate X
Polyester
Polyethylene X
Polyimide X
Polyenylene sulfide X
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polysulfone X
Polyurethane X X
Polyvinyl chloride
Thermosets

Phenolic
Polyester X
Polyurethane X
22
 Small housing & hollow shapes Large housing & hollow shapes
Phone and flashlight cases, Boat hulls, large appliance
helmets, housings for power housings, tanks, tubs,
tools, pumps, small appliances ducts, refrigerator liners
ABS X X
Acetal (Delrin)
Acrylic
Cellulosics X
Fluoroplastics
Nylon
Thermoplastics

Phenylene Oxide X X
Polycarbonate X
Polyester X X
Polyethylene X X
Polyimide
Polyenylene sulfide
Polypropylene
Polystyrene X X
Polysulfone X X
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride X
Thermosets

Phenolic X
Polyester X X
Polyurethane X
23
 Structural & Light Small Large Parts for Optical and
Plastic Mechanical duty housing & housing wear transparent
mech & hollow & hollow applications parts
deco shapes shapes
ABS X X X
Acetal (Delrin) X X
Acrylic X X
Cellulosics X X X
Fluoroplastics X
Nylon X X
Thermoplastics

Phenylene Oxide X X
Polycarbonate X X
Polyester X X
Polyethylene X X X X
Polyimide X
Polyenylene sulfide X
Polypropylene X
Polystyrene X X X
Polysulfone X X X X
Polyurethane X X
Polyvinyl chloride X X
Thermosets

Phenolic X X X
Polyester X X X
Polyurethane X X
24
 Manufacturing Processes for
Plastics
Fabrication of Plastics
Injection Molding

25
Rotational Molding

Rotational molding process consists of six steps

 A predetermined amount of plastic, powder or liquid form, is

deposited in one half of a mold.
 The mold is closed.
 The mold is rotated biaxially inside an oven.
 The plastics melts and forms a coating over the inside
surface of the mold.
 The mold is removed from the oven and cooled.
 The part is removed from the mold.

26
26
Rotational Molding Machines

Vertical wheel machine

Turret machine

Shuttle machine Rock and roll machine

27
27
Rotational Molding
Advantages
• Molds are relatively inexpensive.
• Rotational molding machines are much less
expensive than other type of plastic processing
equipment.
• Different parts can be molded at the same time.
• Very large hollow parts can be made.
• Parts are stress free.
• Very little scrap is produced

28
28
Rotational Molding
Limitations

• Can not make parts with tight tolerance.

• Large flat surfaces are difficult to achieve.
• Molding cycles are long (10-20 min.)

Materials
Polyethylene (most common), Polycarbonate (high heat
resistance and good impact strength), Nylon (good wear
and abrasion resistance, good chemical resistance, good
toughness and stiffness).

29
29
Plastic welding methods
For thermoplastic, one can use various methods for welding.
For thermosets, one can use only adhesive bonding and mechanical
fastening methods.
Most plastic welding process melt thermoplastics using various heat sources.

Polymer bonding methods

Plastic welding method Process

Hot gas welding
Extrusion welding
1. External heating method Hot tool welding
Implant resistance welding
Implant induction welding
Ultrasonic welding
2. Internal heating method Vibration welding
Spin welding
Radio frequency welding
Microwave welding
3. Electromagnetic heating method Infrared welding
Laser welding
Thermoplastic adhesives
4. Adhesive bonding
Thermoset adhesives

30
Hot Gas Welding
 Hot gas welding, also called hot air welding, is a manual process
where the weld quality is dependent on the skill and experience of
the operator.
 During the welding process heated gas, usually air, is used to
locally melt or soften both a consumable weld (filler) rod and the
parts to be welded.

31
Advantages and Disadvantages

 Hot gas welding can be used to weld practically any shape or size of
component, and the equipment has probably the lowest cost of all the
plastic welding techniques.
 Hot gas torches are very light and easy to use in awkward positions,
and are ideally suited for field repairs where the component is too
large to be transported into a workshop environment.
 Welding speeds are relatively slow compared to other plastic welding
techniques, and the weld quality is dependent a high air fl ow that is
usually clean and moisture-free.

32
 Equipment

 Hot gas welding equipment consists of a gas source, hand grip,

heater unit, and welding nozzle.
 For hot air welding, the air can be compressed or blown.
 The gas temperature is usually set via a dial on the handle of the
gun and is controlled by a diode, although in some equipment the
temperature is set using a digital display on the handle of the gun
and is controlled by using a temperature control microprocessor.

33
Joint Design
 Where butt-welded joints are to be made for materials less than 6 mm
thickness, the sheet edges should be prepared in the form of a single
V at an angle of between 60 and 80 ° (fig. a ).
 For fabrications where the sheet thickness is greater than 6 mm, the
preparation of the joint should be a double V (fig. b).

34
 Hot Gas Manual Welding
 Hot gas welding is also used for joining membrane materials, such as PE,
PP, and PVC, without the use of a filler rod. The principle of this technique is
that hot air is introduced between the two sheets to be joined by means of a
flat (fish-tail) nozzle, which subsequently melts the two surfaces.
 The nozzle is moved between the sheets at a constant speed and pressure
is applied immediately behind the nozzle by means of a handheld roller or
some other blunt instrument that will not damage or puncture the liner.
 The combination of hot air and applied pressure results in the two liners
being welded together.

35
 Automatic Hot Gas Welding
 Hot Automatic hot gas welding machines are also available for lap welding
of membranes.
 The pressure and drive rollers, which are usually knurled, apply pressure
to the seam and move the machine along as welding proceeds.
 A drive motor, which uses a chain drive system similar to a wedge welding
machine, powers the rollers.

36
 Extrusion Welding
 Extrusion welding is an established plastics-joining technique that was
developed in the early 1960s for the fabrication of thermoplastic structures.
 It is used to weld PP and HDPE, although specialized equipment is available
for welding PVC and PVDF.
 Extrusion welding is usually performed manually, although it can be
automated for continuous welding applications.
 The technique involves continuously extruding molten thermoplastic of the
same material (and ideally of the same grade) as the parts being welded,
into a prepared joint between the parts, using an extrusion welding gun.

37
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 The most significant advantage of using the extrusion welding process,
when compared to hot gas welding, is that a continuous weld bead is formed
in a single pass, compared to multiple passes for hot gas welding and, due
to the increased volume of material dispensed, the fabrication times are
significantly shorter than for hot gas welding.
 The maximum weld strength is higher than for hot gas welding, as closer
control of the welding parameters is achievable.
 The most significant disadvantage of the extrusion welding process,
compared to hot gas welding, is the weight and size of the equipment; some
extrusion welding guns can weigh as much as 12 kg.
 Vertical welding can therefore become very uncomfortable for the operator.
Also, welding internal corners and welding in confined spaces is difficult, due
to the size of the equipment.

38
 Extrusion Welding
The main components of an extrusion welding gun
 The drive motor (1) is an electric drill with improved gearing, which drives a screw

shaft in a heated barrel.

 This also feeds the welding rod (2) into the rod input point via a pair of pinch rollers

(3), and then into the extruder (4).

 Modern extruders have a special welding rod feed, which prevents the welding rod

from becoming twisted, and ensures constant rod input.

 The material then continues through the heated barrel until it leaves the extruder

through a PTFE shoe (6), which forms the shape of the seam required.
 The parts to be welded are heated by the heating nozzle (7) with air supplied (on this

particular design) via an integral air heater unit (8).

39
Joint design
 As for hot gas welding, the butt joint weld preparations for extrusion
welding can be in the form of a single V or double V, T-joint and an
overlap joint are given.

40
Extrusion Welding

 Hot Automatic hot gas welding machines are also available for lap
welding of membranes.
 The pressure and drive rollers, which are usually knurled, apply
pressure to the seam and move the machine along as welding
proceeds.
 A drive motor, which uses a chain drive system similar to a wedge
welding machine, powers the rollers.

41
 Hot Plate Welding

•Internal Heated tool welding, also known as hot plate, mirror, platen, butt or butt
fusion welding, is a widely used technique for joining injection molded components or
extruded profiles.
•The process uses a heated metal plate, known as the hot tool, hot plate, or heating
platen, to heat and melt the interface surfaces of the thermoplastic parts.
•Once the interfaces are sufficiently melted or softened, the hot plate is removed and
the components are brought together under pressure to form the weld. An axial load
is applied to the components during both the heating and the joining/cooling phases
of the welding process.

42
 Hot Plate Welding
Welding can be performed in two ways:
- welding by pressure
- welding by distance.
Both processes consist of four phases, shown in the pressure versus time
diagram.

43
Hot Plate Welding

44
 Advantages and Disadvantages

•Heated tool welding is a simple economical technique in which high strength,

hermetic welds can be achieved with both large and small parts.
•Joints with flat, curved, or complex geometries can be welded, and surface
irregularities can be smoothed out during the heating phases.
•Dissimilar materials that are compatible but have different melting temperatures can
be welded using hot tools at different temperatures.
•The welding process can be easily automated with full monitoring of the processing
parameters.
•Since the process does not introduce any foreign materials into the joint, defective
welded parts can be easily recycled.

•The major disadvantage of the process is the long cycle time compared with other
common techniques such as vibration or ultrasonic welding.

45
Hot Plate Welding
Hot tool welding can be used to join parts as small as a few centimeters to
parts as large as 1600 mm (63 inches) in diameter, such plastics pipes.

46
Hot Plate Welding
Semiautomatic heated tool welding machine

47
Hot Plate Welding
Semiautomatic heated tool welding machine for large diameter pipes

48
 Electrofusion Welding
The electrofusion technique is mainly used for welding pipes made from
PE for the conveyance of gas, water, and effluent. It is also used in
industrial applications for joining pipes made of PP and PVDF, and more
recently it has been used for welding nailon gas pipes.
The process involves the use of a molded socket fitting containing two
electrical resistive heating coils separated by central cold zones

49
Electrofusion Welding
Electrofusion socket fittings can take the form of couplers, elbows, tees,
and reducer, and are available across a range of pipe sizes of 16 – 710 mm
for pressure pipes applications.

50
Electrofusion Welding
Pipe ends must be cut square and inserted into the coupler so that they
reach the center pipe stop.
This placement ensures proper functioning of the coupler cold zones and
also ensures that all the heating wires are covered.

51
Electrofusion Welding
Pipe ends must be cut square and inserted into the coupler so that they reach
the center pipe stop.
This placement ensures proper functioning of the coupler cold zones and also
ensures that all the heating wiresare covered.

52
Electrofusion Welding
There are three main items of equipment
necessary for undertaking electrofusion
welding:

the fitting

the electrofusion control unit (ECU)

the pipe restraining clamps

53
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Electrofusion welding is a simple process that permits joining of
preassembled pipes and fittings to be carried out quickly and with
minimum equipment.
 It is easy to use for repairs, such as joining a replaced section of
damaged pipe, and can be used where space is limited, such as welding
pipes in a trench.
 Electrofusion can also be used to join pipes of different wall thicknesses
and different grades of material, for example, HDPE to MDPE (where
permitted under local codes of practice).
 A disadvantage of electrofusion is that it is susceptible to contamination,
requiring careful handling of the pipe ends prior to insertion. This can be
difficult to achieve whilst working in a muddy trench.
 The fittings are consumables, so projects involving large diameter pipe
and many joints can be become costly.

54
 Heated Wedge Welding
Heated wedge welding is a specialized type of heated tool welding, which is also known
as hot wedge or hot shoe welding.
It is used for joining thin sheet materials or membranes together in an overlap joint confi
guration.
The heated wedge method consists of an electrically heated resistance element in the
shape of a wedge that travels between the two sheets to be seamed.
The sheets are forced into intimate contact with the hot surface of the heated wedge by
means of the wedge rollers, which apply pressure.
As it melts the surfaces of the sheets being seamed, a shear flow occurs across the
upper and lower surfaces of the wedge. Roller pressure is applied as the two sheets
converge at the tip of the wedge to form the final seam.

55
Heated Wedge Welding
Heated wedge units are automated for temperature, amount of pressure
applied, and speed of travel.

56
 Resistive Implant Welding
 In resistive implant welding, which was originally developed for high
performance thermoplastics reinforced with continuous carbon fibers,
current is applied to a conductive heating element, or implant, placed at the
joint interface of the parts being welded.
 Electrical resistive (Ohmic) heating raises the temperature of the implant
causing the surrounding plastic to melt and flow together, forming a weld.
 The resistive implant welding process can be divided into three stages.

57
The resistive implant welding process

To begin the welding cycle, pressure is

applied to the weld stack, and electric
current is passed through the implant.
Resistive heating of the implant causes a
rise in temperature; the adjoining
thermoplastic material melts (for
semicrystalline thermoplastics) or softens
(for amorphous thermoplastics) and flows
under pressure.
Any surface irregularities are smoothed
out, and molten plastic is squeezed out of
the weld interface, removing any
interlaminar voids.

58
 Advantages and
 Disadvantages
Resistive implant welding is simple to control and process cycle-times are short (30
seconds to several minutes).
 It is not restricted to fl at surfaces, as in vibration or hot plate welding. Because the
heating element remains in the joint after welding, repair of poor quality joints is
possible, and joints can be disassembled to aid the recycling of individual parts.
 Resistive implant welding can be used to join dissimilar materials, such as
thermosets and metals, which would otherwise be joined by traditional techniques
using thermosetting adhesives or mechanical fasteners.
 Due to the fusion bonding of the thermoplastic material, the weld displays a higher
mechanical performance and provides barriers to moisture and solvents, leading to
long-term durability.
 A disadvantage of the technique is the possibility of current leakage away from the
implant, causing un even heating and potential for variation in the mechanical
properties of the weld. In addition, since the implant remains in the joint, it can act
as a void, affecting local mechanical stress distribution.

59
Ultrasonic welding

 Advantages
 Fast
 Can spot or seam weld
 Limitations
 Equipment complex,
many variables
 Only use on small parts
 Cannot weld all plastics

60
Ultrasonic welding
 Vibrates 2 thin parts by using a piezo disc to fuse the 2 parts
together.
 Very efficient use of energy, little heat generated, welds in about 1
second
 Useful for joining 2 noncircular part together (cannot be spin
welded)
 Useful for joining clear plastic together where solvent welding may
blemish part.

61
Ultrasonic welding
 Ultrasonic welding, one of the most widely used welding methods for
joining thermoplastics, uses ultrasonic energy at high frequencies (20 –
40 kHz) to produce low amplitude (1 – 25 μ m) mechanical vibrations.
 The vibrations generate heat at the joint interface of the parts being
welded, resulting in melting of the thermoplastic materials and weld
formation after cooling.
 Ultrasonic welding is the fastest known welding technique,with weld
times typically between 0.1 and 1.0 seconds.

62
 Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Ultrasonic welding is one of the most popular welding techniques used in industry.
 It is fast, economical,easily automated, and well-suited for mass production, with
production rates up to 60 parts per minute being possible.
 Welding times are shorter than in any other welding method, and there is no needfor
elaborate ventilation systems to remove fumes or heat.
 The process is energy efficient and results in higher productivity with lower costs than
many other assembly methods.
 Tooling can be quickly changed, in contrast to many other welding methods, resulting in
increased flexibility and versatility.

 A limitation of ultrasonic welding is that with current technology, large joints (i.e., greater
than around 250 × 300 mm; 10 × 12 inches) cannot be welded in a single operation.
 In addition, specifically designed joint details are required. Ultrasonic vibrations can also
damage electrical components, although the use of higher frequency equipment can
reduce this damage.

63
Material considerations

 Can ultrasonic weld all thermoformed plastics:

 ABS, PC (poly carbonate),PS (poly styrene) can be welded to
one another
 PP, PET, PE, can only be welded to the same material (PP to
PP, PET to PET, PE to PE only)

64
65
Ultrasonic Welding

66
Integrated ultrasonic
welding machine
A number of different welding machine configurations are available,
depending on the intended scope of operation.
An integrated machine contains all the equipment in a one-piece
unit and usually requires just a connection to compressed air and
power to become operational.
A component system is assembled from interchangeable power
supplies, actuators and stands, and is customized for each specific
application.
A handheld system consists of a power supply and converter
designed to be held by the operator.
The power supply contains all the controls and monitoring devices,
except for the manually operated trigger switch that is mounted on
the converter.

67
Ultrasonic welding process

68
 Ultrasonic welding process
Important processing parameters in ultrasonic welding are weld time, (the time vibrations
are applied), weld pressure or force, hold time (the time allowed for cooling and solidifi
cation after vibration has ceased), hold force, trigger force (the force applied to the
partbefore ultrasonic vibrations are initiated), power level, and amplitude of vibration.
The horn must be properly positioned in contact with the top part before ultrasonic
vibrations are initiated; welding cannot be performed successfully if the horn contacts the
part after vibrations have begun.

69
Joint design
 Selection of the joint design must be considered early in the part
design stage.
 The product designer should ask the following questions before

choosing the type of joint design the product will need:

• What is the material to be used?
• What are the fi nal requirements of the assembly?
• Is a structural bond necessary, and what load forces
does it need to sustain?

70
 Joint design
Joint design is crucial for optimal results in ultrasonic welding. It depends on the type of
thermoplastic, part geometry, and end-use requirements.
Designs for ultrasonic welding should have a small initial contact area between the parts
to be welded, to concentrate the ultrasonic energy and decrease the total time needed
for melting.

71
Vibration welding
 Advantages
 Speed
 Used on many

materials
 Limitations
 Size
 Requires fixturing

 Equipment costly

72
Vibration Welding
 Vibration welding uses heat generated by friction at the interface
of two materials to produce melting in the interfacial area.
 The molten materials flow together under pressure, forming a

weld upon cooling.

 Vibration welding can be accomplished in a short time (1 – 10

seconds cycle time) and is applicable to a variety of thermoplastic

parts with planar or slightly curved surfaces.
 The two main types of vibration welding are: linear, in which

friction is generated by a linear, reciprocating motion, and orbital,

in which the upper part to be joined is vibrated in a circular
motion.

73
 Vibration Welding
 Linear vibration welding is most commonly used, but orbital vibration
welding makes the welding of irregularly shaped plastic parts possible.

74
Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Advantages of vibration welding include relatively short cycle
times, energy effi ciency, capability of welding large parts, and
insensitivity to surface preparation.
 Because of the smearing action due to friction, welds can be
obtained on surfaces that have been vacuum metalized, painted,
or contaminated.
 No additional materials are introduced as in the implant welding
techniques or adhesive bonding, so the weld interface is
composed of the same material as the welded parts.
 Heating is localized to a large extent, in contrast to hot tool
welding, and material degradation resulting from overheating at
the interface is much less likely to occur.

75
Equipment - linear vibration
welding
Vibration weldingmachine
machines are
large to ensure that there is
sufficient mass to prevent the
equipment from moving during the
vibration cycle.
 Because of the noise generated by
the welding process, sound
insulation panels are built into the
machine walls to protect the
operator and those present nearby.
 These generally reduce the sound
to values less than 85 dB.
 Equipment is classified as low
frequency (120 – 135Hz) or high
frequency (180 – 260 Hz) and can
be variable frequency or fixed
frequency.

76
 Vibration welding machine
 The three major components of a linear vibration welder are: a vibrator
assembly suspended on springs,a lifting table, and tooling fixtures.

77
Joint design
 In designing parts for vibration welding, there are two important considerations:
• Sufficient clearance must be provided in the joint to allow for vibratory motion between the
parts.
• Parts must be sufficiently rigid to support the joint during welding.

Simple butt joint for linear

vibration welding:
(a) motion parallel to wall,
(b) motion transverse to wall

78
 Spin welding
Spin welding, also known as rotational or rotary friction
welding, is a process where thermoplastic parts with
rotationally symmetrical joining surfaces are rubbed
together under pressure in a unidirectional circular
motion.
One part is held stationary while the other is rotated.
The heat that is generated during this process melts the
plastic at interface, forming a weld upon cooling.
The process can be carried out on a dedicated spin
welding machine or on a lathe or drill press.

79
Spin welding Modes
There are two main modes of spin welding: inertia and direct-drive.

In inertia welding, which is the simplest form of spin welding, the drive head is
spun to a constant rotational speed using either pneumatic or electric motors
coupled to a flywheel.

In direct-drive spin welding, the rotational speed remains constant throughout the
welding stage.

This can be accomplished by using either a lathe or a drilling machine as well as

dedicated spin welding equipment.

80
 Advantages and
Disadvantages
Spin welding is a simple and highly energy efficient process; there is little excess
heat generated, which means that cooling times are short.
This makes the process well-suited to automated assembly line applications.
Strong, hermetic joints can be produced, which are frequently stronger than the
parent parts.
No foreign materials are introduced into the weld and no environmental
considerations are necessary, as in solvent welding or adhesive bonding.

81
Equipment - inertia spin welding
machine
Spin welding machines can vary signifi cantly in
their design and complexity, ranging from lathes
and modified drills to direct-drive, computer
controlled models. In most inertia spin welders a
pneumatic motor supplies the spinning motion.
A control valve is used to regulate the air flow to
the motor, which drives the fl ywheel,connected
to the drive head.

82
Joint design
Spin Joint design is a critical factor when designing thermoplastic components
for spin welding.
Care should be taken to ensure that the joint achieves the desired result; that
is, it produces an aesthetically pleasing appearance and/or gives the desired
weld strength.
When designing a component for spin welding, the simplest joint design is the
butt joint.

Before welding After welding 83

 Joint design
In some cases the wall thickness of the component is thickened in the weld
area to give greater joint strength and part rigidity.

Simple butt joints with thicker wall at weld area External (left) and internal (right) fl ash trap
designs for simple butt welded joint

84
 Joint design selection criteria
The most suitable joint design must be selected based upon the desired end
result.

85
 Infrared Welding
 Infrared (IR) radiation can be used as a noncontact heat source for
welding of polymers.
 The IR radiation is often supplied by heated metal plates, which radiate at
wavelengths between 1 and 15 μm or IR lamps, which radiate at
wavelengths predominantly between 1 and 3 μm.
 This radiation can cause heating and melting when incident on a polymer
surface.
 The IR source is removed after melting has occurred, and the parts are
forged together and allowed to cool down.

86
Infrared Welding
There are two basic types of IR welding:
 surface heating or noncontact hot plate welding

 through-transmission IR (TTIR) welding

 Surface heating can be achieved by using an electrically heated

metal plate or IR lamps. The metal plate, which in some cases is
coated with a ceramic, is heated to a temperature between 310 and
510 °C depending on the thermoplastic to be welded and the size of
the welding machine.
 For IR lamp welding, the standard heater plate is replaced with two
banks of short-wave IR emitters clamped and spring-loaded on
either side of a movable platen

87
Infrared Welding

IR lamp welding of plastics pipes

88
Phases of Infrared Welding

89
Advantages and
Disadvantages
 IR welding is a fast and economical method for joining plastics. IR
radiation can heat a polymer and create a melt zone very quickly.
 Parts can therefore be welded at least 30% faster than in heated
tool welding.
 The fact that heating is achieved without physical contact eliminates
any problems of material sticking to the hot plate or wear of the hot
plate coating as in heated tool welding, and contamination of the
joint interface is minimized.
 IR welding is able to weld low modulus materials, such as
thermoplastic elastomers, since there is little or no shear of the weld
piece during heating. Also, due to limited displaced material
compared to heated tool welding, the weld beads are smaller,
increasing the fl ow in pipes and reducing the risk of micro-
contamination at the beads.

90
 Joint Design
 Varieties of joint designs are possible when using IR welding. Material
displacement is typically 0.76 mm that results only from 0.38 mm material
displacement per side from material fusion during the weld/seal step as
there is no displacement during the IR melt step.
 This may vary depending on material and geometry.

91
 Laser welding
 Laser welding was first demonstrated for thermoplastics in the 1970s, and
since the late 1990s it has been used in mass production.
 The technique, suitable for joining both sheet, film, molded thermoplastics
and textiles, uses a laser beam to melt the plastic in the joint region.
 Lasers are well suited to delivering controlled amounts of energy to a
precise location due to the ease of controlling the beam size available (10 μ
m – 100 mm width), and the range of methods available for precise
positioning and movement of the beam. Two general forms of laser welding
exist: direct laser welding and transmission laser welding.

92
Direct Laser welding
 In direct laser welding the materials are heated from the outer
surface possibly, to a depth of a few millimeters. Normally, no
specifi c radiation absorber is added to the plastics.
 Laser sources of 2.0 – 10.6 μm wavelength are typically used.

 At 10.6 μm (CO2 laser), radiation is strongly absorbed by plastic

surfaces, allowing high-speed joints to be made in thin films.

 Developments have also been made using a CO2 laser

transmissive cover sheet as a clamp and heat-sink to make welds in
thicker plastics without material loss at the surface.

93
Direct Laser welding
 At 2.0 μm, where the absorption is less strong, a fiber or
Holmium:YAG laser can be used to make welds in sheet a few
millimeters thick.
 Direct laser welding is not widely applied for joining plastics, but it
has a potential for wider use.

94
Transmission Laser welding
 Transmission laser welding is now
widely used for joining thermoplastics in
industry, using laser sources with
wavelengths from 0.8 – 1.1 μ m, such
as diode, Nd:YAG, and fi ber lasers.
 The radiation at these wavelengths is
less readily absorbed by natural
plastics.
 Laser absorbing additives are therefore
put into the lower part or applied as a
thin surface coating at the joint. The
parts are positioned together before
welding and the laser beam passes
through the upper part to heat the joint
at the absorbing surface of the lower
part.

95
Advantages/Disadvantages of
Transmission Laser Welding

96
 Equipment
The main elements of a laser welding system are:
• Power supply, including a chiller for higher power
laser sources
• Laser source
• Beam delivery optics (lens, mirror, or fi ber
based)
• Beam focusing or shaping optics, including
masks,if required
• Beam manipulation optics, such as galvanometer
controlled mirrors
• Workpiece clamping and support
• Workpiece manipulation

97
Equipment
 The beam or workpiece manipulation equipment for laser welding
will typically take one of the forms illustrated in figure below, or a
combination of one or more of these.

98
Adhesive Bonding
 Adhesive bonding is the most versatile of all joining techniques
and can be used to join plastic parts to each other or to other
materials such as metals, ceramics, or wood.
 A range of joint strengths is available, ranging from low-strength
putty and caulking compounds, which are used only for space-
and void-filling, to highstrength structural adhesives used in the
automotive and aerospace industries.
 In simplest terms, an adhesive is applied to the substrate, or
adherend, surfaces; the joint is formed by holding the
components together while the adhesive cures/hardens to
develop structural properties, forming a bond to both surfaces.

99
Adhesive Bonding
 Adhesive In adhesive bonding, attractive forces form between
the adhesive and the adherends.
 The type of attractive force varies with the type of adhesive and
adherends, but is generally a combination of some or all of the
following forces:

• Adsorptive: These forces result from intimate interaction between

particles at the joint surface. Attachment of such particles
(including atoms or molecules) can be through weak, dipolar, or
Van der Waals interactions or through chemical, usually
covalent, bonds.
• Electrostatic: These forces are due to ionic bonds between
oppositely charged species or molecules.
• Diffusive: These forces result from molecular chain entanglements
between the adherend and adhesive as they diffuse across the
joint interface.

100
Adhesive Bonding
 According to the boundary layer theory of adhesive joint strength,
macromolecules of adsorbed adhesive form an interfacial boundary
layer with molecular properties different from those of the bulk
adhesive.
 Strong joints occur when this interfacial layer is strong enough to
withstand external stresses. Weak joints result from weak boundary
layers that contain entrapped air, impurities, or weak surface
chemical layers on the adherend.

101
Adhesive Bonding
 Adhesive Joint design in adhesive bonding is an important determinant
of the strength, reliability, and durability of the bond.
 The most effective joint design for a particular application depends on
the stresses the part will encounter, and the mechanical properties of
the adhesive and adherends.
 The joint must accommodate all loads on the part. For structural joints,
the load in one adherend must be transferred through the adhesive
layer to the other joint component.
 Higher strength is generally obtained by larger bond surface areas; for
structural load bearing joints with composite adherends, in which the
bulk adhesive strength is lower than that of the bulk adherends, the
bonded area usually must be larger than the cross-sectional area of the
adherends.
 A lap joint or lap combination joint (joggle lap, double lap, double lap
scarf, butt scarf lap) provides maximum surface area for bonding.
 In T - joints and butt joints, the bond area is limited by the wall thickness
of the part; these joints are not recommended for adhesive bonding.

102
 Joint designs
Joint design in adhesive bonding is an importan determinant of the strength reliability,
and durability of the bond. The most effective joint design for a particular application
depends on the stresses the part will encounter, and the mechanical properties of the
adhesive and adherends.

103
Joint designs

Stresses on adhesive joints:

(a) tensile stress,
(b) compressive stress,
(c) Shear stress,
(d) cleavage stress,
(e) peel stress

104
Applications
 Adhesive bonding can be used to join different types of plastics and
composites to themselves and to other materials, such as metals,
wood, fabric, film, or cardboard.
 With a clean substrate surface, most materials can be adhesively
bonded to a similar or dissimilar material; for difficult materials (e.g.,
those with a low surface energy such as PE, PP, or PTFE), primers,
or special surface preparation techniques can increase bondability
significantly.
 Substrates can take any form including blocks, fi lms, sheets,
particles, sandwich structures,or honeycomb cores.

105
Thank You!!!

106