SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES STRATIGRAPHY

SUNJAY , [email protected]

Stratigraphical analysis -seismic stratigraphy involves the subdivision of seismic sections into sequences of reflections that are interpreted as the seismic expression of genetically related sedimentary sequences. Seismic sequence analysis,
reflections are taken to define chronostratigraphical units, since the types of rock interface that produce reflections are stratal surfaces and unconformities; by contrast, the boundaries of diachronous lithological units tend to be transitional
and not to produce reflections. Sedimentary sequences are typically bounded by angular unconformities variously representing onlap, downlap, toplap or erosion Layer-thickness determination and stratigraphic interpretation using spectral
decomposition inversion using Local wavelet attributes (amplitude, phase and scale) for geological characterization, Geometric wavelet transform curvature attributes interpretation submarine channels for defining stratigraphic features of
interest on horizons mapped in three-dimensional seismic data. Interpretation of seismic sections: structural analysis- reflector geometry on the basis of reflection times, and stratigraphical analysis (or seismic stratigraphy)- reflection
sequences as the seismic expression of lithologically distinct depositional sequences. Seismic waves propagating in randomly multilayered media are subjected to stratigraphic filtering, whose physical reason is the multiple scattering by 1-
D inhomogeneities. The direct consequence of multiple scattering is the wave localization, which appears approximately as an exponential attenuation of transmitted waves. Application of seismic geomorphology and stratigraphy of
depositional elements in deep-water settings, detailed seismic interpretation and analysis of key stratal discontinuities- Seismic incision features interpreted as channels, continental slope and base-of-slope systems, for frontier hydrocarbon
exploration-arctic petroleum systems. High resolution seismic stratigraphy using sub-bottom profiler(SBP) Acoustic Stratigraphy, for extracting the Quaternary facies by the Hilbert Huang transformation (HHT) nonlinear nonstationary
chirp signal.
In reflection seismology, a seismic attribute is any quantity derived from seismic data using measured time, amplitude, frequency, attenuation or any combination of these. It intends to output a subset of the data that quantifies rock and fluid properties and/or allows the recognition of geological patterns and features.
Interpretation of seismic reflection data: Differing procedures are adopted for the interpretation of two- and three-dimensional seismic data. The results of two-dimensional surveys are presented to the seismic interpreter as non-migrated and migrated seismic sections, from which the geological information is extracted
by suitable analysis of the pattern of reflection events. Interpretations are correlated from line to line, and the reflection times of picked events are compared directly at profile intersections . There are two main approaches to the interpretation of seismic sections: structural analysis, which is the study of reflector
geometry on the basis of reflection times, and stratigraphical analysis (or seismic stratigraphy), which is the analysis of reflection sequences as the seismic expression of lithologically-distinct depositional sequences. Both structural and stratigraphical analyses are greatly assisted by seismic modelling, in which
theoretical synthetic seismograms(sonic logging) are constructed for layered models in order to derive insight into the physical significance of reflection events contained in seismic sections.Various architectural, or geometric, characteristics record the lateral shift in depositional environments in response to sea-level
change and subsidence . Onlap typically takes place at the base of the succession, recording the beginning of a cycle of sedimentation. Offlap develops when the rate of sedimentation exceeds the rate of accommodation generation. An offlap architecture may predominate in settings of high sediment supply. Toplap
represents the abrupt pinch-out of offlapping units at the shelf-slope break. This develops when there is a major difference in accommodation generation between the shelf andslope, for example when wave, tide, or storm processes inhibit or prevent accumulation on the shelf. Sediment transported across the shelf is
eventually delivered to the slope, a process termed sediment bypass. Toplap my represent abrupt thinning rather than truncation,with a thick slope unit passing laterally into a condensed section on the shelf. Discrimination betweentruncation and condensation may then depend on seismic resolution. Downlap surfaces
may develop as a result of progradation across a basin floor, and they also develop during a transition from onlap to offlap.They typically develop above flooding surfaces, as basin-margin depositional systems begin to prograde seaward following the time of maximum flooding. The dipping, prograding units are
called clinoforms (after Rich, 1951), and they lap out downward onto the downlap surface as lateral progradation takes place. The word lapout is used as a general term for all these types of stratigraphic termination. The broad internal characteristics of stratigraphic units may be determined from their seismic facies,
defined to mean an areally restricted group of seismic reflections whose appearance and characteristics are distinguishable from those of adjacent groups (Sangree and Widmier, 1977). Various attributes may be used to define facies: reflection configuration, continuity, amplitude and frequence spectra, internal
velocity, internal geometrical relations, and external three-dimensional form. Thin bed include levee,interchannel,and outer fan/fringe deposits-composed of very fine sands and/or silt and contain abundant ripples bedding , pinch and swell structures, some convolute bedding , minor bioturbation , and mostly graded
beds.
Wavelet analysis , known as a mathematical microscope, has scope to cope with non stationary, nonlinear signal to delve deep into geophysical seismic signal processing and interpretation for oil
and gas exploration and production,petrophysical imaging for oil and gas reservoir ,advanced Seismic stratigraphy -high resolution subsurface imaging. Non-Stationary statistical Geophysical
Seismic Signal Processing (GSSP) is of paramount importance for imaging underground geological structures and is being used all over the world to search for petroleum deposits and to probe the
deeper portions of the earth. Seismic interpretation has been traditionally based on reflections or amplitudes. However, amplitude alone can also disguise the true nature of subsurface geology and blur
stratigraphic boundaries. In many cases important information is carried by singularities that are not necessarily associated to certain amplitude patterns. We present Holder exponent (α) as a new
seismic attribute which captures the locations and strengths of irregularities in the data. Holder exponent (α) is a measure of singularity strength defined at or around a point. Higher α indicates higher
degree of regularity, and vice versa. Holder exponent is a natural attribute for delineating stratigraphy boundaries due to its excellent abilities in detecting detailed geologic features from seismic
data.A wavelet-based method for analysis of singularities improves analysis and information gathering from seismic trace data. The Holder exponent is calculated for every time point of the wavelet
Fig.1 : Sequence architecture, showing common
transform for each seismic trace. Holder exponents are then plotted versus time. These graphs are utilized in place of seismic traces themselves in creating two and three dimensional images. The
characteristics of “seismic reflection terminations” graphs produced using Holder exponents greatly improve interpretation of stratigraphic boundaries and other geological information to be readily identified. This provides for better, more accurate
(redrawn from Vail et al.,1977) stratigraphic analysis. In addition, the nature of the Holder exponents of the seismic trace are consistent with Holder exponents calculated from acoustic impedance of the various strata. The Holder
exponents correlate closely with results from acoustic impedance and therefore allow data gathering to provide new geophysical information. In addition, Holder exponents calculated from
Fig.2 b: Top row: synthetic models approximating the Earth model in singularities in the traces very sharply and distinctly delineate borders between strata. The study and interpretation of seismic attributes provide us with some qualitative information of the geometry
Fig.2 a. Bottom row: images produced by forward modeling using the and the physical parameters of the subsurface. It has been noted that the amplitude content of seismic data is the principal factor for the determination of physical parameters, such as the acoustic
wavelet shown in each model (top). The overlap of the units is (7λ). impedance, reflection coefficients, velocities, absorption, etc. The phase component is the principal factor in determining the shapes of the reflectors, their geometrical configurations etc. One point
that must be brought out is that we define all seismically-driven parameters as Seismic Attributes. They can be velocity, amplitude, frequency, and the rate of change of any of these with respect to
time or space. The principal objectives of the attributes are to provide accurate and detailed information to the interpreter on structural, stratigraphic and lithological parameters of the seismic prospect.

Stratigraphic Filtering: Seismic waves propagating in randomly multilayered media

are subjected to stratigraphic filtering, whose physical reason is the multiple
scattering by 1-D inhomogeneities. The direct consequence of multiple scattering is
Fig.2 a: Earth model: Five stratigraphic targets the wave localization, which appears approximately as an exponential attenuation of
(bodies 1 through 5) deposited at five transmitted waves. The corresponding attenuation coefficients have complicated
different geologic times, T1 through T5 angular and frequency dependencies. Two more direct consequences of the multiple
(courtesy Hardage, B.A., et.al.,2006). scattering (causally connected to the firs~ one) are the velocity dispersion and
Fig. 2c: Same modelling exercise described in Fig. 2c except the overlap of the anisotropy (transverse isotropy). The latter two effects are also very closely mutually
units is decreased to two dominant wavelengths (2λ).
related because the multiple scattering takes place in a stratified medium.multiple-
scattering effects into account, thus simplifying the expressions for the
transmissivity and the reflectivity,Frequency-Dependent Properties of
Stratigraphic Filtering-Low-Frequency Asymptotic Solution; High-Frequency
Asymptotic Solution; Whole-Frequency Domain Solution; Frequency-Dependent
Shear-Wave Splitting; Fluctuations of the Attenuation Coefficient; Inversion for
Statistics of Stratifications These features are the frequency-dependent velocity
anisotropy; the frequency-dependent shear-wave splitting, and the dispersion and
attenuation of the time-harmonic transmissivity. They characterize the frequency-
domain behavior of generalized primaries of seismic events. Stratigraphic Filtering
and Amplitude Variation with Offset,Scattering or Intrinsic Absorption; Amplitude
Processing;Stratigraphic Filtering in Poroelastic Media; Attenuation and Permeability
Fig.2 d: Same modelling exercise described in Fig. 2c except the overlap of the units is decreased to one
dominant wavelength (1λ).
Fig.3: Seismic resolution and detection are in Fig.2 b through Fig.2 d. Now, if three units corresponding to times T1, T2 and T3 from below are
determined as a function of the wavelength of the illuminated by wavelet having dominating λ = 40 m, then for the units having thickness λ/4 = 10 m and
Seismic Geomorphology And Stratigraphy Of Depositional Elements In Deep-Water Settings -the interest by petroleum companies in deep-water exploration and the advent of widely
seismic waveform. A complete image that includes spacing λ/2 = 20 m (left panel of Figs.2 b, c and d) the reflections follow the chronostratigraphic surfaces (the

the top and base of a sedimentary bed requires the

unit coloured red) and beds are easily interpreted as the bed thicknesses matches with resolving power of the available high-quality 3D seismic data across a broad range of deepwater environments ; the recent drilling and coring of both near-surface and reservoir- level deep-water systems ; the increasing
wavelet λ/4. Now, for the set up in the central panel of Figs.2 b, c and d, the dominating wavelength is 80 m
bed to be a minimum of 1/4 the wavelength of the and the bed thickness and the spacing are 10 m and 20 m, respectively. The seismic responses indicate that the utilization of deep-tow side-scan sonar, sub bottom proofing,echo sounding and other imaging devices groundpenetrating radar,vertical radar profiling. Three-dimensional seismic data afford an
seismic waveform. Beds thinner than this will not part of unit T1 overlapped by T2 and part of T2 overlapped by T3, etc are not imaged. Thus each image in the unparalleled view of the deep-water depositional environment, in some instances with vertical resolution down to 2–3 m. Seismic time slices, horizon-datum time slices, and interval attributes
central panel consists of chronostratigraphic seismic reflection though may not be accurate and complete
be fully imaged, but if they are thicker than 1/30 reflections. The situation which is shown in the right most panel of Figs.2 b, c and d, the reflections show provide images of deepwater depositional systems in map view that can then be analyzed from a geomorphologic perspective. Geomorphologic analyses lead to the identification of depositional
wavelength, the seismic reflection will exhibit some slightly erratic peak/ trough response because still thinner and closer five-layer system represents a single unit. elements, which, when integrated with seismic profiles, can yield significant stratigraphic insight. Calibration by correlation with borehole data, including logs, conventional core, sediment records
amplitude response. (Diagram courtesy of D. Here, the dominating λ = 160 m, thickness of each unit is 10 m and the spacing is 20 m. The dominating
wavelength is becoming large as the five-layer system is shifting towards bottom (depth). Therefore, the beds logbook Rock Magnetic, Paleointensities and biostratigraphic samples, can provide the interpreter with an improved understanding of the geology of deep-water systems. Seismogeomorphic
Minken.) cannot be resolved distinctly, the resolution is best if the thickness of a bed is equal to one fourth of the Interpretation Spectral Decomposition Channel Detection for Hydrocarbon Exploration Seismic chronostratigraphy Seismogeomorphic Interpretation: Seismic attributes are useful to help the
dominating wavelength.
qualitative interpretation of the seismic data. Seismic attributes are derived from basic seismic measurements. The attributes are useful to ascertain structure, lithofacies, and reservoir parameters of
Reflectivity Dispersion Finsler geometry of seismic ray path in earth-The seismic ray theory in anisotropic inhomogeneous media is studied based on a field as attribute properties can vary significantly with variations in lithology, geometry, and structural patterns of deposition for various lithofacies in an area. The basic poststack attributes may be
non-Euclidean geometry called Finsler geometry. anisotropic parameters indicate that the shape of wavefront is expressed not by a circle but by a convex grouped into the following classification- Time-derived: provide structural information; Amplitude-derived: provide stratigraphic and reservoir information; Frequency-derived: provide additional
curve called a super ellipse. This deviation from the circle as an isotropic wavefront can be characterized by a roughness of wavefront. The roughness
parameter of the real rock shows that the shape of the wavefront is expressed by a fractal curve. From an orthogonality of the wavefront and the ray, the
stratigraphic and reservoir information. While spectral decomposition is a good indicator of channel thickness, coherence and other edge detectors are good indicators of channel width. Since
seismic wavefront in anisotropic media relates to a fractal structure of the ray path.Wave Equation in Differential Form: Fractional Derivatives(seismic channels may have different spectral response than the neighbouring data points, different single frequency volumes will in general delineate or highlight different thickness channels. Channels
wave attenuation) appear in Biot theory which is essential to describe wave propagation in multi-phase (porous) media from the seismic to the ultrasonic filled with porous rock and encased in a nonporous matrix comprise one of the more important stratigraphic exploration plays. However, detailed mapping of channels has a much broader impact.
frequency range. Since fractional derivatives appear in Biot theory, which are related to memory effects at seismic frequencies.Fractional calculus provides By using modern and paleo analogs, mapping channels helps map the paleo depositional environment, and helps interpret less obvious prospective areas such as fans and levees. By mapping the
an alternative approach to model waves in anelastic media. Porous media are anisotropic due to bedding, compaction and the presence of aligned
microcracks and fractures. In particular, in the exploration of oil and gas reservoirs, it is important to estimate the preferential directions of fluid flow. width, tortuousity, and spatial relation of meandering channels, avulsions, braided streams, among others, geomorphologists are able to infer channel depth and fluid velocity during the time of
These are closely related to the permeability of the medium, and consequently to the geometrical characteristics of the skeleton. In other words, an formation, and thus better risk whether the fill is sand or shale prone Application of seismic geomorphology and stratigraphy of depositional elements in deep-water settings, detailed seismic
anisotropic skeleton implies that permeability is anisotropic and vice versa.The modern use of spectral decomposition treats reflection events always interpretation and analysis of key stratal discontinuities- Seismic incision features interpreted as channels, Continental Slope and Base-of-slope Systems, for Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration,Arctic
frequency dependent in practice . The Wolf Ramp: Reflection Characteristics of a Transition Layer-The modern use of spectral decomposition has shown
that reflection events in practice are always frequency dependent, a phenomenon we call reflectivity dispersion. This can often be attributed to strong
petroleum systems. seismic geomorphology applications to hydrocarbon exploration and production 3-D Seismic Geomorphology of a Deepwater Slope Channel System, Imaging Elements of
interference effects from neighbouring reflection coefficients of the classical type (i.e., parameter discontinuities or jumps). However, an intrinsic Depositional Systems from Shelf to Deep Basin using 3D Seismic Data, etc are need of hydrocarbon industry. 3D seismic data can play a vital role in hydrocarbon exploration and development
frequency dependence from a single layer is possible if the contact is not a jump discontinuity but a gradual transition. Wolf Ramp- Reflection From especially with regard to mitigating risk associated with presence of reservoir, source, and seal facies. Such data can afford direct imaging of depositional elements, which can then be analyzed using
Transition Zone reflectivity dispersion which refers to frequency dependence of a normal incidence reflection effect. There are few causes for reflectivity seismic geomorphology and seismic stratigraphy to yield predictions of lithologic distribution, insights to compartmentalization, and identification of stratigraphic trapping possibilities.
dispersion , e.g. rough surface scattering, reflection from an interface porous media, vertical transition zone. Biot Reflection the great problem of
reflectivity dispersion arising from a poroelastic contact in earth which acts as DHI Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator.In a Biot Medium, three types of body Interpretation Techniques can be employed to extract stratigraphic insights from seismic data. These include: time slices; flattened time slices (i.e., horizon slices);reflection attribute mapping;
waves exist- fast P, slow P , S. By using computerized tomography (CT) scans it is possible to visualize the fluid distribution and spatial heterogeneities in interval attribute mapping; sub-volume detection (i.e., opacity rendering), and voxbody picking. 3D seismic data to characterize the geomorphology and stratigraphy of deep-water depositional
real rocks. elements and infer process of deposition where appropriate. turbidity flow leveed channels; overbank sediment waves and levees; frontal splays or distributary-channel complexes; crevasse-splay
complexes, and debris-flow channels, lobes, and sheets. Exploration activities along continental margins which contains the shelf and deep water parts of these dynamic systems, imaging them to a
high level of detail, allowing high-resolution mapping of depositional sequences and depositional elements and fluid flow phenomena, which help constrain the presence of petroleum systems.
Extraction of geometric attributes -Curvature and lateral variations: Curvature is a 3D seismic attribute quantifying the degree to which the local reflector surface deviates from being planar. Curvature attributes is employed for mapping subtle features and predict fractures or small-scale faults. To extract curvature attributes, a quadratic surface is used to fit all
plausible reflector trends at each position in the 3D seismic volume, and the best fitting quadratic surface is used to measure the curvature.Texture attributes are morphological features captured from seismic data mimicking the expertise of an experienced interpreter. In seismic stratigraphic interpretation, texture is often referred to fabrics of a stratigraphic facies
such as a turbidite unit, or characteristic pattern of a geologic feature such as a salt body or a fractured siltstone layer. The processing for texture attributes is typically a feature extraction, like that for curvature attributes.Curvature Attributes Interpretation Submarine Channels:The use of curvature attributes for defining stratigraphic features of interest on horizons
mapped in three-dimensional seismic data. Curvature is a two-dimensional property of a curve that quantifies how much the curve deviates from a straight line. Many different types of curvature may be defined for a surface, and these can be more useful than dip, azimuth or even 'conventional' (i.e. second derivative) curvature analyses for defining subtle structural
or stratigraphic features of interest. Mathematically, it is also the reciprocal of the radius of curvature, i.e. the curvature is high for a small radius of curvature. In two dimensions, positive curvature describes an 'upward' inflection of a line or a convex shape, while negative curvature is a 'downward' inflection or concave shape. In three dimensions, there is an infinite
number of ways in which the curvature can be measured at a given point on a surface. However, the most meaningful measures are those that are defined by planes orthogonal to the surface, called 'normal curvatures' The maximum and minimum curvatures (sometimes referred to as 'principal curvatures') on a surface will also be mutually perpendicular, but not
necessarily aligned with the strike and dip directions. The product of the maximum and minimum curvatures is known as the total curvature (or Gaussian curvature). Curvature is better than the conventional dip and azimuth measures for defining subtle structural and stratigraphic features. Curvature analysis of surfaces removes the effects of regional dip, thus
emphasizing small-scale features that might be associated with primary depositional features or small-scale faults. A tilted planar surface has dip but no curvature. When a surface is steeply dipping, e.g, on the limbs of a fold, high dips can obscure subtle features on the surface. This problem is commonly referred to as 'dip saturation'. Curvature analysis identifies
deviations from a planar surface, regardless of whether the surface is horizontal or tilted. The sign (positive or negative) of the curvature also conveys shape information (convex-up versus. concave-up, respectively). The maximum curvature is commonly used to map faults. curvature will be large for a curve that is tightly folded and will be zero for a straight line,
whether horizontal or dipping. As a convention, anticlinal features are assigned a positive and synclinal surfaces a negative value.Volumetric Curvature: Seismic Attributes curvature is a measure of how bent or deformed a surface is at a particular point. The more deformed the surface, the larger its curvature. Curvature measures various morpholog ­ic forms like
domes, ridges, valleys, bowls, well,listric fault and thrust belt which has to do with shape indices.. Curvature is an effective attribute meth ­od that provides geoscientists with alterna­tive images of faults and subtle fractures and stratigraphic features, such as channels and mounds. Volumetric Curvature: Seismic Attributes curvature is a measure of how bent or
deformed a surface is at a particular point. The more deformed the surface, the larger its curvature. Curvature measures various morpholog ­ic forms like domes, ridges, valleys, bowls, well,listric fault and thrust belt which has to do with shape indices. Curvature is an effective attribute meth ­od that provides geoscientists with alterna­tive images of faults and subtle
fractures and stratigraphic features, such as channels and mounds. Seismic attribute analysis:Seismic attributes are extracted from the seismic volume to analyze the high-amplitude anomalies and assess their relationship with stratigraphy or geomorphic features. The seismic attribute used include RMS amplitude, chaos, variance and the geobody extraction.Chaos
attribute map the chaotic signal pattern contained within a seismic data and are a measure of the "lack of organization” in the dip and azimuth estimation method. Chaos in the signal can be affected by gas migration paths, salt body intrusions, and for seismic classification of chaotic texture . Subsequently, variance seismic attribute measures dissimilarity of seismic
traces. Variance maps convert a volume of continuity into a volume of discontinuity, highlighting structural and stratigraphic boundaries. The combined attributes are used to show the migration pathways, highlight gas chimneys and the static fluid accumulations. The results from these attribute analysis are input for the geobody extraction.Root-Mean-Square RMS
Amplitude and Geobody Architecture :RMS amplitudes are calculated as the square root of the average of the squares of the amplitudes found within an analysis window. High values of RMS amplitude s reflect a high porosity lithology such as sand that forms our potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. The use of RMS amplitude and other volume attributes are more
reliable in geobody prediction and help to guide the proper selection of drillable areas and well placement. Amplitude anomalies may be attributed to constructive or destructive interference caused by two or more closely spaced reflectors and variations in net sand within a sedimentary unit and give information about the energy content of the seismic data used to
distinguish between different lithology types. Architectural elements (geobody) interpreted from seismic attributes include: Dispersed sediment facies, linear/lateral shoreface facies and deep-water mass-transport complexes and channel . These architectural features reflect a combination of both active deltaic sedimentation and deep marine events. The RMS
amplitudes are sensitive to sandstone-bearing depositional systems within the reservoir-bearing successions and help define the spatial distribution of genetically related depositional successions. RMS high amplitude points may represent stratigraphic leads with significant exploration potential in the field.When using 3-D seismic data, geological bodies which
represent depositional elements such as channels and lobes can be extracted. These geobodies need to correspond to the analogue of deep water deposits. Geobody extraction methods are undertaken in order differentiate between channelized (confined) and non-channelized (unconfined) depositional bodies in the field. The objective of the seismic analysis is to map
out geological surfaces which influence the geometry of the reservoir. The seismic analysis is also used to extract the 3-D geobody that represents the Basin Floor Channel (BFC) and Basin Floor Fan (BFF) regions of the reservoir. Seismic and petro-physical interpretations correlate with field and outcrop analogues studies in order to guide the geobody extraction
process. The geobody represents the reservoir zones thus is should only constitute the extraction of sand rich zones of the Basin Floor Channel (BFC) and Basin Floor Fan (BFF) complexes. The channel sand is quite complex especially in the up-dip section of the channel geobody. The smaller depositional channel elements meander in the larger erosional channel
body. This region constitutes the confined area at the base of the continental slope, which is dominated by depositional channels and channelsied sheet sands. The channelised sheets arise from less confined turbidite pulses depositing sands in the larger channel.The down-dip lobe complex has a complex stacking and lateral swithching pattern of deposition which is
further complicated by stratigraphic pinching of individual lobe elements. lobes pinch out, switch and stack at various scales even though appearing to be one continues amalgamated sand package at the well bore.

Seismic chronostratigraphy : computational seismic chronostratigraphy: The procedure is as follows: automatic tracking software is used to generate multiple mapped horizons within the seismic volume. Seismic terminations, corresponding to such real structural features as unconformities or downlap surfaces, can be recognised and mapped by the software by
the convergence of reflections to within a pre-set spacing value. A Wheeler diagram may then be constructed by flattening each surface to the horizontal. In this way thickness,the Z dimension (the y-axis of a 2-D plot), is converted to relative time. Structural and thickness information are lost in this process, and the resulting diagram emphasizes non-
depositional and erosional hiatuses by the presence of blank space. The horizontal extent of each surface reflects either (1) its erosional extent, for example the technique provides a clear time-space map of subaerial unconformities, or (2) the original depositional extent, such as that of a clinoform unit, extending from its coastal origins at the mouth of a delta,
down the continental margin to its lapout at the foot of the continental slope (this is, of course, within the limit of seismic resolution. In fact, distal clinoform sets may extend for considerable distances into a deep basin as thin pelagic units). The vertical dimension of the plot depends on the number of autotracked horizons, which means that it varies in scale
depending on the heterogeneity of the section and is also dependent on seismic resolution. The time scale to be derived from the vertical axis is therefore relative, and variable. Nonetheless, the resulting ability to visualize missing section, reflecting non-depositional or erosional hiatuses may provide a valuable addition to the tools for sequence interpretation and
the development of paleogeographic models.
Conclusion =Stratigraphical analysis -seismic stratigraphy: Seismic stratigraphy involves the subdivision of seismic sections into sequences of reflections that are interpreted as the seismic expression of genetically related sedimentary sequences.The principles behind this seismic sequence analysis are two-fold. Firstly, reflections are taken to define
chronostratigraphical units, since the types of rock interface that produce reflections are stratal surfaces and unconformities; by contrast, the boundaries of diachronous lithological units tend to be transitional and not to produce reflections. Secondly, genetically related sedimentary sequences normally comprise a set of concordant strata that exhibit discordance
with underlying and overlying sequences; that is, they are typically bounded by angular unconformities variously representing onlap, downlap, toplap or erosion Layer-thickness determination and stratigraphic interpretation using spectral inversion: Theory and application Local wavelet attributes (amplitude, phase and scale) for geological characterization.
Geophysical signals are multiscale and nonstationary in character. Sub-bottom profilers are acoustic systems traditionally used to image sediment layers and rocks beneath the seabed, providing information about sediment thicknesses and stratigraphy. Machine learning/statistical learning/deep learning is employed for pattern recognition for seismic
interpretation.