Engineering Drawing

Lecture # 01

Introduction

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 Syllabus

1. Importance of engineering drawing; Drawing techniques

2. Manual drawing instruments and their uses – Drawing

board; Mini- drafter; Set squares; Drawing instrument
box; Scales; Protractor; French curves; Drawing
papers; Drawing pencils; Eraser; Drawing pins/clips;
Sand paper block; Duster.

3. Conventions - ISO and BIS; Layout of drawing sheets;

Border lines; Title block; Folding of drawing sheets; Lines,
lettering and dimensioning.

4. Scales – Plane, diagonal and vernier

5. Curves used in engineering practice:

6. Orthographic projection – Theory of projection 2

7. Projection of points

8. Projection of straight lines

9. Projection of planes

10. Projection of solids

11. Auxiliary projections

12. Sections of solids

13. Development of surfaces

14. Intersections of solids

15. Isometric projections

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 Books/references

1. Dhananjay A Jolhe, Engineering drawing, TMH, 2008

2. M.B. Shah and B.C. Rana, Engineering Drawing, Pearsonson,
2009.
3. N D Bhatt and V M Panchal, Engineering Drawing, 43rd edition,
Charator Publishing House, 2001
4. T E French, C J Vierck and R J Foster, Graphic Science and
Design, 4th edition, McGraw Hill, 1984
5. W J Luzadder and J M Duff, Fundamentals of
Engineering Drawing, 11th edition, Prentice-Hall of India, 1995.
6. K Venugpoal, Engineering Drawing and Graphics, 3nd
edition, New Age International, 1998.
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Note to the students
1. Practical assignments are to be completed in the Drawing Hall during
the respective practice period itself.
2. No make-up class for the completion of the incomplete assignments.
3. Only one make-up class for a missed class, that too only under
medical ground. Students having attendance (lecture + tutorial)
less than 75%, or for both lecture and tutorial independently
will be debarred from appearing in the end semester
examination.
4. No entry to the lecture hall 5 minutes after the start of the class.

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 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Graphical means of expression of

technical details without the
barrier of a language.

Universal language for Engineers

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 What will you learn from this course?

How to communicate technical information.

• Visualization – the ability to mentally understand visual

information.
• Graphics theory – geometry and projection techniques
used for preparation of drawings.
• Standards – set of rules for preparation of technical
drawings. Conventions – commonly accepted
practices in technical drawings.
• Tools – devices used to create technical drawings and
models.
• Applications – the various uses for technical drawings.
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Graphic language: mode of communication through SKETCHES

Drawing: graphical representation of an OBJECT

Engineering Drawing

Drawing of an object contains all the necessary information,

required for the construction/fabrication of the object, like

➢ actual shape,
➢ accurate sizes,
➢ manufacturing methods,
➢ materials to be used etc.,

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 List of tools required for the drawing practice session

Sl. No. Item Quantity

1 Mini-drafter (or T-Square) 1
2 Engineering Drawing Box 1
3 French curves 1 set
4 Set-square 1 set
5 Protractor 1
6 Drawing Clip 1 set
7 Lead pencil/clutch pencil 2-3
8 Lead (HB, H & 2H) 1 each set
9 Eraser 1
10 Sand paper/cello tape 1
11 Blade / pencil sharpener 1
12 Drawing Sheet 1 per session

➢ Students without Engineering Drawing Box will not be

allowed oattend the practical session.
➢ School
Instrument box is not allowed. 10
Mini-drafter

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Mini-drafter fixed on a drawing table
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 Set-square

French Curves
Drawing Clips
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Scale set
14
Engineering Drawing Box

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16
Pencils

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 Dimensions of Engineer’s Drawing Boards

Designation Length x Width Recommended

for use with sheet
(mm)
sizes
D0 1500 x 1000 A0
D1 1000 x 700 A1
D2 700 x 500 A2
D3 500 x 500 A3
D0 and D1 for drawing offices, for students
use – D2
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Standard sizes of drawing sheets as per
BIS
Designation Size
(mm)
A0 841 x 1189
A1 594 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4 210 x 297

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Drawing
Sheet
Sizes

20
Drawing sheet Layout

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TITLE BOX PRACTICE

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 LINES AND LETTERING*

LINES

Lines are the basic feature of a drawing. A line may

be straight, curved, continuous, segmented, thin,
thick, etc., each having its own specific sense.

Line strokes refer to the directions of drawing

straight and curved lines

*standard given in BIS : SP-46, 2003

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 Line Strokes
Vertical and inclined lines are drawn from top to bottom,
horizontal lines are drawn from left to right. Curved lines
are drawn from left to right or top to bottom.

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 Line types
Illustration Application
Thick Outlines, visible edges,
surface boundaries of objects,
margin lines
Continuous thin Dimension lines, extension lines,
section lines leader or pointer lines,
construction lines, boarder lines
Continuous thin wavy Short break lines or
irregular boundary lines – drawn
freehand
Continuous thin with zig-zag
Long break lines

Short dashes, gap 1, length 3 mm

Invisible or interior surfaces

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 Line types

Illustration Application
Short dashes Center lines, locus lines
Alternate long and
short dashes in a proportion of
6:1,
Long chain thick at end
and Cutting plane lines

Continuous thick border

line Border

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Uses of different types of lines in a given
drawing

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 Units of Measurement

➢ International systems of units (SI) – which is

basedon the meter.
➢ Millimeter (mm) - The common SI unit of
measure onengineering drawing.
➢ Individual identification of linear units is not
required if all dimensions on a drawing are in
the same unit (mm).
➢ The drawing shall however contain a note:
ALLDIMENSIONS ARE IN MM. (Bottom left
corner outside the title box)
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 Dimensioning

➢ Indicating on a drawing, the size of the object

andother details essential for its construction
and function, using lines, numerals, symbols, notes,
etc.

➢ Dimensions indicated on a drawing should be

those that are essential for the production,
inspection and functioning of the object.

➢ Dimensions indicated should not be mistaken

asthose that are required to make the drawing of
an object.
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An example

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0
➢ Ex – a thin, line
ension line solid
perpendicular a dimension line,
indicating which feature is
to
associated with the dimension.

➢ gap – there be a
V should visible
isible
gap
corners 1.5
andmmthe end of thethe feature’
between
extension line. s
of
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 Leader line
❑ A thin, solid line used to indicate the
feature with which a dimension, note, or
symbol is associated.
❑ Generally a straight line drawn at an angle
that isneither horizontal nor vertical.
❑ Terminated with an arrow touching the
part ordetail.
❑ On the end opposite the arrow, theleader line
will have a short, horizontal shoulder. Text
is extended from this shoulder such that the text
height is centered with the shoulder line

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2
 Arrows
3 mm wide and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are
long - symbols placed at the end of dimension lines to
show the limits of the dimension. Arrows are uniform
in size and style, regardless of the size of the drawing.

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Spacing of Dimensions

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Placing of Dimensions

Orientation of Dimensioning Text

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 Dimensioning of angles

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 Dimensioning of Circular Features
A circle should be dimensioned by giving its diameter
instead of radius. The dimension indicating a
diameter should always be preceded by the symbol ø,

011 37
Dimensioning a Length
Depends on Available Space

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 Dimensioning Radii

Arcs of Circle Precede with ‘R’ to distinguish from length

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 RULES OF DIMENSIONING
1. Between any two extension lines, there must be one and only one
dimension line bearing one dimension.
2. As far as possible, all the dimensions should be placed outside the
views. Inside dimensions are preferred only if they are clearer
and more easily readable.
3. All the dimensions on a drawing must be shown using either Aligned
System or Unidirectional System. In no case should, the two
systems be mixed on the same drawing.
4. The same unit of length should be used for all the dimensions on a
drawing. The unit should not be written after each dimension,
but a note mentioning the unit should be placed below the drawing.
5. Dimension lines should not cross each other. Dimension lines should
also not cross any other lines of the object.
6. All dimensions must be given.
7. Each dimension should be given only once. No dimension should be
redundant.
8. Do not use an outline or a centre line as a dimension line. A centre line
may be extended to serve as an extension line.
9. Avoid dimensioning hidden lines.
10. For dimensions in series, adopt any one of the following ways.
i. Chain dimensioning (Continuous dimensioning) All the
dimensions are aligned in such a way that an arrowhead
of one dimension touches tip-to-tip the arrowhead of the
adjacent dimension. The overall dimension is placed
outside the other smaller dimensions.
ii. Parallel dimensioning (Progressive dimensioning) All the
dimensions are shown from a common reference line.
Obviously, all these dimensions share a common extension
line. This method is adopted when dimensions have to
be established from a particular datum surface
iii. Combined dimensioning When both the methods, i.e., chain
dimensioning and parallel dimensioning are used on
the same drawing, the method of dimensioning is
called combined dimensioning.
Dimensioning Guidelines

Avoid crossing extension lines

Multiple extension
line crossings may
be confused for
the outside corner
of the part.

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2
• Single stroke refers to the thickness obtained in one stroke of
a pencil or ink pen .
• It does not mean that the pencil or
pen should not be lifted while completing a particular letter.
Lettering types
• Lettering A – Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts
• Lettering B – Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts

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 Specifications of A -Type Lettering

Specifications Value Size (mm)

Capital letter height h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20

Lowercase letter height a = (5/7)h - 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14

Thickness of lines b = (1/14)h 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4

Spacing between
c = (1/7)h 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8
characters

Min. spacing b/n words d = (3/7)h 1.05 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4

Min. spacing b/n baselines e = (10/7)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28

Ratio of height to width varies, but in most cases is 6:5

6:5
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 Engineering Drawing

Lecture 2

Geometric Constructions
 Geometric Construction

• Construction of primitive geometric

forms (points, lines and planes etc.)
that serve as the building blocks for
more complicated geometric shapes.

• Defining the position of the object in

space
Lines and Planes
Solids
Curved surfaces
 Primitive geometric forms

• Point
• Line
• Plane
• Solid
• ……etc
The basic 2-D geometric primitives, from which
other more complex geometric forms are
derived.
➢ Points,
➢ Lines,
➢ Circles, and
➢ Arcs.
 Point

➢ A theoretical location that

has neither width, height, nor
depth.

➢ Describes exact location in space.

➢ A point is represented in technical

drawing as a small cross made of dashes
that are approximately 3 mm long.
 A point is used to mark the locations of
centers and loci, the intersection ends, middle of
entities.
 Line
➢ A geometric primitive that
has length and direction, but no
thickness.
➢ It may be straight,
curved oracombinationof these.
➢
conditions, such as parallel, intersecting,
and tangent.
➢ Lines – specific length and non-specific
length.
➢ Ray – Straight line that extends to infinity
froma specified point.
Relationship of one line to another line or arc
Bisecting a line
 Dividing a line into equal parts

• Draw a line MO at any convenient angle (preferably an

acute angle) from point M.
• From M and along MO, cut off with a divider equal
divisions (say three) of any convenient length.
• Draw a line joining RN.
• Draw lines parallel to RN through the remaining points on
line MO. The intersection of these lines with line MN will
divide the line into (three) equal parts.
Planar tangent condition exists when two
geometric forms meet at a single point and do
not intersect.
Locating tangent points on circle and arcs
Drawing an arc tangent to a given point on the line
Steps
• Given AB
line tangent and
Construct point
perpendicular to line
T. a
AB
lineT.
and through point

• Locate the center of

the arc by making the
radius on the
perpendicular line. Put
the point of the
compass at the center of
the arc, set the compass
for the radius of the arc,
and draw the arc which
will be tangent to the line
through the point T.
Drawing an arc, tangent to two lines
Drawing an arc, tangent to a line and an arc
(a) that do not intersect (b) that intersect
Construction of Regular Polygon of given length AB

(A) (B)
Draw a line of length With A as centre and radius
AB. semicircle. AB, draw a
With the divider, divide the semicircle into the number of sides of the
polygon.
Draw a line joining A with the second division-point 2.
Construction of Regular Polygon of given length AB…...

(A) (B)

The perpendicular bisectors of A2 and AB meet at O. Draw a circle

with centre O and radius OA. With length A2, mark points F, E, D & C
on the circumferences starting from 2 (Inscribe circle method)
With centre B and radius AB draw an arc cutting the line A6
produced at C. Repeat this for other points D, E & F (Arc method)
 General method of drawing any polygon

Draw AB = given length of polygon

At B, Draw BP perpendicular & = AB
Draw Straight line AP
With center B and radius AB, draw
arc AP.
The perpendicular bisector of AB meets st.
line AP and arc AP in 4 and 6 respectively.
Draw circles with centers as 4, 5,&6 and
radii as 4B, 5B, & 6B and inscribe a square,
pentagon, & hexagon in the respective
circles.
Mark point 7, 8, etc with 6-7,7-8,etc. = 4-5 to
get the centers of circles of heptagon and
octagon, etc.
 Inscribe a circle inside a regular polygon

• Bisect any two

adjacent internal
angles of the
polygon.
• From the
intersection of
these lines, draw a
perpendicular to
any one side of the
polygon (say OP).
• With OP as
radius, draw the
circle with O as
center.
 Inscribe a regular polygon of any number of sides
(say n = 5), in a circle

Draw the circle with diameter

AB.

Divide AB in to “n” equal parts

Number them.

With center A & B and radius

AB, draw arcs to intersect at P.

Draw line P2 and produce it to

meet the circle at C.

AC is the length of the side of

the polygon.
 Inside a regular polygon, draw the same number of equal
circles as the side of the polygon, each circle touching
one side of the polygon and two of the other circles.

● Draw bisectors of all

the angles of the
polygon, meeting at O,
thus dividing the
polygon into the same
number of triangles.
● In each triangle
inscribe a circle.
 Inside a regular polygon, draw the same number of
equal circles as the side of the polygon, each circle
touching two adjacent sides of the polygon and two of
the other circles.

● Draw the
perpendicular bisectors
the polygon
of to of
thesides obtain
same number
quadrilaterals as of
number of sides of the
polygon.
● Inscribe a inside
circle each
quadrilateral.
 To draw a circle touching three lines inclined to
each other but not forming a triangle.

● Let AB, BC, and AD be

the lines.
● Draw bisectors of the
two angles, intersecting
at O.
● From O draw a
perpendicular to any one
line intersecting it at P.
● With O as center and OP
as radius draw the
desired circle.
 Outside a regular polygon, draw the same number of
equal circles as the side of the polygon, each circle
touching one side of the polygon and two of the other
circles.

● Draw bisectors of two

adjacent angles and
produce them outside
the polygon.
● Draw a circle touching
the
extended bisectors
and the side AB (in
this case) and repeat
the same for other
sides.
 Construction of an arc tangent of given radius to two
given arcs
• Given - Arcs of radii M and N. Draw an arc of radius AB units which is
tangent to both the given arcs. Centers of the given arcs are inside the
required tangent arc.
Steps:
From centers C and D of
the given arcs, draw
construction arcs of radii (AB –
M) and (AB N), respectively.
With the intersection point as
the center, draw an arc of radius
AB.
This arc will be tangent to
the two given arcs.
Locate the tangent points T1 and
T2.
 Construction of line tangents to two circles (Open belt)
Given: Circles of radii R1 and R with centers O and P, respectively.
Steps:
With P as center and a
radius equal to (R-R1) draw an
arc.
Locate the midpoint of OP
as perpendicular bisector of OP
as “M”.
With as centre and as
radius draw a semicircle.
Locate the intersection point
T between the semicircle and
the circle with radius (R-R1).
draw a line PT and extend it to locate
T1. Draw OT2 parallel to PT1.
The line T1 to T2 is the required tangent
 Construction of line tangents to two circles (crossed belt)
Given: Two circles of radii R1 and R with centers O and P, respectively.

Steps:
Using P as a center and a
radius equal to (R+ R1) draw
an arc.
Through O draw a tangent to
this arc.
Draw a line PT cutting the
circle at T1
Through O draw a line OT2
parallel to PT1.
The line T1T2 is the required
tangent.
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 Engineering Drawing

Lecture 3

SCALES AND Engineering Curves

 Definition

A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear

dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the
same.
 Necessity
• Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are
called full sized drawing.

• It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the

object to its actual size. e.g. Buildings,
Heavy

• Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at

• Full size
• Reduced size
• Enlarged size
 BIS Recommended Scales
Reducing scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:Y (Y>1) 1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Enlarging scales 50:1 20:1 10:1
X:1 (X>1) 5:1 2:1
Full size scales 1:1

Intermediate scales can be used in exceptional cases

where recommended scales can not be applied for
functional reasons.
 Types of Scale
• Engineers Scale :
The relation between the dimension on the drawing
and the actual dimension of the object is mentioned
numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).

• Graphical Scale:
Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care
of the shrinkage of the engineer’s scale when the
drawing becomes old.
 Types of Graphical Scale

• Plain Scale

• Diagonal Scale

• Vernier Scale

• Comparative scale
 Representative fraction (R.F.)

When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1

meter length of the object,

R.F  1cm  1cm

1 1m

1 x 100 cm
100
 Plain scale
• A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable
number of equal units. The first unit is
subdivided into smaller parts.
• The zero should be placed at the end of the 1st main
unit.
• From the zero mark, the units should be
numbered to the right and the sub-divisions to
the left.
• The units and the subdivisions should be
labeled clearly.
• The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.
Construct a scale of 1:4, to show centimeters and
long enough to measure up to 5 decimeters.

• R.F. = ¼
• Length of the scale = R.F. × max. length = ¼ × 5 dm = 12.5
cm.
• Draw a line 12.5 cm long and divide it in to 5 equal divisions, each
representing 1 dm.
• Mark 0 at the end of the first division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end
• of each subsequent
Divide the firstdivision to itsinto
division right. equal sub-divisions,
10 representing 1 cm. each
• Mark cm to the left of 0 as shown.
Question: Construct a scale of 1:4, to show centimeters
and long enough to measure up to 5 decimeters

•
instead of only a line.
•
Draw the division lines showing decimeters throughout the width
of the scale.
•
Draw thick and dark horizontal lines in the middle of
all alternate divisions and sub-divisions.
•
Below the scale, print DECIMETERS on the right hand
side,
CENTIMERTERS on the left hand side, and R.F. in the middle.
 Diagonal Scale

• Through Diagonal scale, measurements can be up

to second decimal (e.g. 4.35).
• Diagonal scales are used to measure distances in a
unit and its immediate two subdivisions; e.g.
dm, cm & mm, or yard, foot & inch.
• Diagonal scale can measure more accurately than
the plain scale.
 Diagonal scale…..Concept
•
At end B of line AB, draw a perpendicular.
•
Step-off ten equal divisions of any length along
the perpendicular starting from B and ending
at C.
•
Number the division points 9,8,7,…..1.

•
Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw
lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1´, 2´, 3
´, etc.
•
Since the triangles are similar; 1´1 = 0.1 AB,
2´2 = 0.2AB, …. 9´9 = 0.9AB.
•
Gives divisions of a given short line AB in
multiples of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB, 0.2AB,
0.3AB, etc.
Construct a Diagonal scale of RF = 3:200 (i.e. 1:66 2/3) showing
meters, decimeters and centimeters. The scale should measure up
to 6 meters. Show a distance of 4.56 meters

• Length of the scale = (3/200) x 6 m = 9 cm

• Draw a line AB = 9 cm . Divide it in to 6 equal parts.
• Divide the first part A0 into 10 equal divisions.
• At A draw a perpendicular and step-off along it 10
equal divisions, ending at D.
 Diagonal Scale

• Complete the rectangle ABCD.

• Draw perpendiculars at meter-divisions i.e. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
• Draw horizontal lines through the division points on AD. Join D
with the end of the first division along A0 (i.e. 9).
• Through the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6, … draw lines // to D9.
• PQ = 4.56 meters
 Vernier Scales
• Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for measuring up
to second decimal.
• A Vernier scale consists of (i) a primary scale and (ii) a vernier.
• The primary scale is a plain scale fully divided in to
minor divisions.
• The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on the
primary scale.
Least count (LC) is the minimum distance that
can be
measured.
Forward Vernier Scale :
MSD>VSD; LC = MSD-VSD

Backward Vernier scale:

VSD>MSD; LC = VSD - MSD
 Vernier scale…. Concept
• Length A0 represents 10 cm and is divided in to 10 equal parts
each representing 1 cm.
• B0 = 11 (i.e. 10+1) such equal parts = 11 cm.
• Divide B0 into 10 equal divisions. Each division of B0 will
be equal to 11/10 = 1.1 cm or 11 mm.
• Difference between 1 part of A0 and one part of B0 = 1.1 cm -1.0
cm = 0.1cm or 1 mm.
Question: Draw a Vernier scale of R.F. = 1/25 to read up
to 4 meters. On it show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

• Length of Scale = (1/25) × (4 × 100) = 16 cm

• Draw a 16 cm long line and divide it into 4 equal parts. Each part is
1 meter. Divide each of these parts in to 10 equal parts to show
decimeter (10 cm).
• Take 11 parts of dm length and divide it in to 10 equal parts. Each of
these parts will show a length of 1.1 dm or 11 cm.
• To measure 2.39 m, place one leg of the divider at A on 99 cm mark
and other leg at B on 1.4 mark. (0.99 + 1.4 = 2.39).
• To measure 0.91 m, place the divider at C and D (0.8 +0.11 = 0.91).
Question: Draw a Vernier scale of R.F. = 1/25 to read up
to 4 meters. On it show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

• Length of Scale = (1/25) × (4 × 100) = 16 cm

• Draw a 16 cm long line and divide it into 4 equal parts. Each part is
1 meter. Divide each of these parts in to 10 equal parts to show
decimeter (10 cm).
• Take 11 parts of dm length and divide it in to 10 equal parts. Each of
these parts will show a length of 1.1 dm or 11 cm.
• To measure 2.39 m, place one leg of the divider at A on 99 cm mark
and other leg at B on 1.4 mark. (0.99 + 1.4 = 2.39).
• To measure 0.91 m, place the divider at C and D (0.8 +0.11 = 0.91).
Engineering Curves

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Common Engineering
Curves
Parabolic shape

Elliptical
shape

Hyperbola

spiral 20
 Conic curves (conics)
Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a
right circular cone. e.g. Parabola, hyperbola and ellipse

Right circular cone

is a cone that has a
circular base and
the axis is inclined
at 900 to the base
and passes through
the center of the
base.

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1
Conic sections are always
"smooth". More precisely, they
never contain any inflection
points. This is important for
many applications, such as
aerodynamics, civil engg.,
mechanical engg, etc.

2
2
 Conic
Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that
the ratio of its distance from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is
always constant.
Fixed point is called Focus
Fixed line is called Directrix

2
3
 Eccentrici ty  Distance of the point from the focus
Distance of the point from the directric

When eccentricity
< 1 € Ellipse
=1 € Parabola
> 1 € Hyperbola

eg. when e=1/2, the curve is an Ellipse, when e=1, it is a

parabola and when e=2, it is a hyperbola. 24
 Ellipse

An
obtained when e
section plane,l
inclined to the axis,l
cuts all thei
generators of the p
cone. s
e

i 2
s 5

a
 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method
Given : the distance of focus from the directrix and eccentricity
Example : Draw an ellipse if the distance of focus from the directrix is
70
mm and the eccentricity is 3/4.
1. Draw the directrix AB and
axis CC’
2. Mark F on CC’ such that
CF = 70 mm.
3. Divide CF into 7
fourth
equal partsdivision fromV atC.
and mark
Now,thee = FV/ CV = 3/4.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular
VB = VF. Join CB. Through
F, draw a line at 45° to meet
CB produced at D. Through
D, drop a perpendicular
DV’ on CC’. Mark O at the
midpoint of V– V’. 2
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 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method ( Continued)
5. With F as a centre and radius =
1–1’, cut two arcs on
the perpendicular
through 1 to locate P1
and P1’. Similarly, with
F as centre and radii = 2–
2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on
the corresponding
perpendiculars to locate P2
and P2’, P3 and P3’,
etc. Also, cut similar arcs
on the perpendicular
through O to locate V1
and V1’.
6. Draw a smooth closed
curve passing through V, P1,
P/2, P/3,
…, V1, …, V’, …, V1’, … P/3’,
P/2’, P1’. 2
7
7. Mark F’ on CC’ such that V’
F’
= VF.
 ME 111: Engineering Drawing

Lecture 4
08-08-2011

Engineering Curves and Theory of Projection

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Guwahati – 781039
 Eccentrici ty  Distance of the point from the focus
Distance of the point from the directric

When eccentricity
< 1 € Ellipse
=1 € Parabola
> 1 € Hyperbola

eg. when e=1/2, the curve is an Ellipse, when e=1, it is a

parabola and when e=2, it is a hyperbola. 2
 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method
Given : the distance of focus from the directrix and eccentricity
Example : Draw an ellipse if the distance of focus from the directrix is
70
mm and the eccentricity is 3/4.
1. Draw the directrix AB and
axis CC’
2. Mark F on CC’ such that
CF = 70 mm.
3. Divide CF into 7
fourthparts
equal division fromV atC.
and mark
Now,thee = FV/ CV = 3/4.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular
VB = VF. Join CB. Through
F, draw a line at 45° to meet
CB produced at D. Through
D, drop a perpendicular
DV’ on CC’. Mark O at the
midpoint of V– V’. 3
 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method ( Continued)
5. With F as a centre and radius =
1–1’, cut two arcs on
the perpendicular
through 1 to locate P1
and P1’. Similarly, with
F as centre and radii = 2–
2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on
the corresponding
perpendiculars to locate P2
and P2’, P3 and P3’,
etc. Also, cut similar arcs
on the perpendicular
through O to locate V1
and V1’.
6. Draw a smooth closed
curve passing through V, P1,
P/2, P/3,
…, V1, …, V’, …, V1’, … P/3’,
P/2’, P1’. 4

7. Mark F’ on CC’ such that V’

F’
= VF.
 Constructing a Parabola (Eccentricity Method)
Example. Draw a parabola if the distance of the focus
from the directrix is 60 mm.
1. Draw directrix AB and axis CC’ as shown.
2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 60 mm.
3. Mark V at the midpoint of CF. Therefore, e =
VF/ VC = 1.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular VB = VF. Join CB.
5. Mark a few points, say, 1, 2, 3, … on VC’ and
erect perpendiculars through them meeting
CB produced at 1’, 2’, 3’, …
6. With F as a centre and radius = 1–1’, cut two
arcs on the perpendicular through 1 to locate
P1 and P1’. Similarly, with F as a centre and
radii = 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on the
corresponding perpendiculars to locate P2
and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through V, P1,
P2, P3 … P3’, P2’, P1’.

5
 Constructing a Hyperbola (Eccentricity Method)

Draw a hyperbola of
e = 3/2 if the distance
of the focus from the
directrix = 50 mm.

Construction similar
to ellipse and
parabola

6
 Drawing Tangent and Normal to any conic

When a tangent at any point on the curve (P) is produced to meet the
directrix, the line joining the focus with this meeting point (FT) will be at
right angle to the line joining the focus with the point of contact (PF).
The normal to the curve at any point is perpendicular to the tangent
at that point. 7
 Another definition of the ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane for which the sum of
the distances from the two fixed points (the foci) in the plane is
constant.

8
 Arcs of Circle Method
Given conditions: (1) the major axis and minor axis are known OR
(2) the major axis and the distance between the foci are known
Draw AB & CD perpendicular to each
other as the major diameter minor
diameter respectively.
With centre as C or D, and half the major
diameter as radius draw arcs to intersect
the major diameter to obtain the foci at X
and Y.
Mark a numbe of points along line
segment XY and number them. Points need
not be equidistant.
Set the compass to radius B-1 and draw
two arcs, with Y as center. Set the compass
to radius A1, and draw two arcs with X as
center. Intersection points of the two arcs
are points on the ellipse. Repeat this step
for all the remaining points.
Use the French curve to connect the points,
thus drawing the ellipse.
9
 Constructing an Ellipse (Concentric Circle Method)

Given:
Major axis and
minor axis

• With center C, draw two concentric circles with diameters equal to major and minor
diameters of the ellipse. Draw the major and minor diameters.
• Construct a line AB at any angle through C. Mark points D and E where
the line intersects the smaller circle.
• From points A and B, draw lines parallel to the minor diameter. Draw lines parallel to
the major diameter through D & E.
• The intersection of the lines from A and D is point F, and from B and E is point
G. Points F & G lies on the ellipse.
• Extend lines FD & BG and lines AF and GE to obtain two more points in the other
quadrants.
• Repeat steps 2-6 to create more points in each quadrant and then draw a
smo10oth curve through the points.
 Constructing a Parabola (Parallelogram Method)
Example: Draw a parabola of base 100 mm and axis 50 mm if the
axis makes 70° to the base.

1. Draw the base RS = 100 mm and through its midpoint K, draw the axis KV = 50 mm, inclined
at 70° to RS. Draw a parallelogram RSMN such that SM is parallel and equal to KV.
2. Divide RN and RK into the same number of equal parts, say 5. Number the divisions as 1, 2, 3,
4 and 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, starting from R.
3. Join V–1, V–2, V–3 and V–4. Through 1’, 2’, 3’ and 4’, draw lines parallel to KV to meet V–1 at
P1, V–2 at P2, V–3 at P3 and V–4 at P4, respectively.
4. Obtain P5, P6, P7 and P8 in the other half of the rectangle in a similar way. Alternatively, these
points can be obtained by drawing lines parallel to RS through P1, P2, P3 and P4. For example,
draw P1– P8 such that P1– x = x– P8. Join P1, P2, P3 … P8 to obtain the parabola. 1
1
 Hyperbola

A Hyperbola is obtained
when a section plane,
parallel/inclined to the axis
cuts the cone on one side of
the axis.

A Rectangular Hyperbola
is obtained when a
section, parallel to the axis
cuts the cone on one side of
the axis.
12
Hyperbola Mathematical definition
A
hyperbola is
defined
points asinthe set
a of
whose plane
from distances
two foci, in
points called
the plane have fixeda
constant difference.

13
 Constructing a Hyperbola
Given: Distance between Foci and Distance between
vertices Draw the axis of symmetry and
construct a
perpendicular
through the axis. Locate
and focalpoint
on either F of it.
side
Locate equidistant
points A from
and
the on perpendicular
equidistant
B from the the
axis
perpendicular. AB is the distance
between vertices
With F as center and radius R1,
and draw the arcs. With R1 +
AB, radius, and F as center,
arcs on side of
draw a second set of arcs. The
each
perpendicular the
intersection of thepoint
two
are hyperbola s on
the
Select a new radius R2 and
repeat step 2. Continue
this process until several
1
points on the hyperbola are 4
marked
 Roulettes
• Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling
contact of one curve or line on another curve or
line, without slipping.

• There are various types of roulettes.

• The common types of roulettes used in

engineering
most practice are: Cycloids,
Trochoids, and Involutes.
 Cycloid

Generating circle
Base line

A Cycloid is generated by a point on the circumference of a

circle rolling along a straight line without slipping

The rolling circle is called the Generating circle

The straight line is called the Directing line or Base line
 Constructing a cycloid

➢ Generating circle has its center at C and has a radius of C-P’. Straight line
PP’is equal in length to the circumference of the circle and is tangent to the circle
at point P’.
➢ Divide the circle into a number of equal segments, such as 12. Number h te
intersections of the radii and the circle.
➢ From each point of intersection on the circle, draw a construction line parallel to
linePP’ and extending up to line P’C’.
➢ Divide the line CC’ into the same number of equal parts, and number
them. Darwvertical lines from each point to intersect the extended
horizontal centerline of the circle. Label each point as C1, C2, C3, …. C12.
 Constructing a cycloid (contd.)

Using point C1 as the center and radius of the circle C-P’, draw an arc that
intersects the horizontal line extended from point 1 at P1. Set the compass at point
C2, then draw an arc that intersects the horizontal line passing through point 2 at
P2. Repeat this process using points C3, C4, …. C12, to locate points along the
horizontal line extended from points 3, 4, 5, etc..
Draw a smooth curve connecting P1, P2, P3, etc to form the cycloid
Draw normal NN and Tangent TT
 Epicycloid

The cycloid is called Epicycloid when the generating circle

rolls along another circle outside it.
 Constructing an Epicycloid

1) With O as centre
and OC as
radius, draw an
arc to
represent locus of
centre.
2) Divide arc PQ in
to 12 equal
parts and name
them as
1’, 2’, …., 12’.

3) Join O1’, O2’, …

and produce them
to cut the locus of
centres at C1, C2,
….
4) Taking C1 as centre, and radius equal to 20 mm, draw an arc cutting the arc
through 1 at P1. Similarly obtain points P2, P3,…., P12.
5) Join P1, P2….. With French curve
 Hypocycloid

Hypocycloid is obtained when the generating circle rolls

along another circle inside it.
 Constructing an Hypocycloid

Construction is similar to epicycloid. The generating

circle is to be drawn below the base circle
 Trochoid

• Trochoid is a curve generated by a point outside or inside

the circle rolling along a straight line.
• If the point is outside the circle the curve obtained is
called
Superior Trochoid
• If the point is inside the circle, the curve obtained is
called
Inferior Trochoid
 Classification of Cycloidal curves

Generating Circle
On the Outside Inside the
directing the directing
line directing line
line
On the Cycloid Epicycloid Hypocycloid
generati
Generatin ng circle
g point Outside Superio Superior Superior
the r epitrocho Hypotrocho
generatin trochoi id id
g circle d
Inside Inferior Inferior Inferior
the trochoi epitrocho hypotrocho
generati d id id
ng circle
 Involute

An Involute is a curve traced by the free end of a thread

unwound from a circle or a polygon in such a way that
the thread is always tight and tangential to the circle or
side of the polygon
 Construction of Involute of circle
Draw the circle with c as center
and CP as radius.
Draw line PQ = 2CP, tangent to
the circle at P
Divide the circle into 12 equal
parts. Number them as 1, 2…
Divide the line PQ into 12 equal
parts and number as 1´, 2´…..
Draw tangents to the circle at 1,
2,3….
Locate points P1, P2 such that
1- P1 = P1´, 2-P2 = P2´….
Join P, P1, P2….
The tangent to the circle at any point on it is always normal to the its
involute. Join CN. Draw a semicircle with CN as diameter, cutting the circle
at M.
MN is the normal.
Engineering Drawing
Theory of Projections

2
7
 Projection theory
3-D objects and structures are
represented graphically on 2-D media.

All projection theory are based on two

variables:
➢ Line of sight
➢ Plane of projection.
Projection system
 Plane of Projection
A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture
plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the
image created by the line of sight is projected.

The image is produced by connecting the points

where the lines of sight pierce the projection
plane. In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a
2-D representation, also called projections.

The paper or computer screen on which a

drawing is created is a plane of projection
 Projection Methods
Projection methods are very
important techniques in
engineering drawing.

➢ Perspective
and
➢ Parallel.
In perspective
projection, all
lines of sight
start at a
single point.
In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel.
Parallel vs Perspective Projection

Parallel projection
Distance from the observer to the object is infinite,
projection lines are parallel – object is positioned at
infinity.
Less realistic but easier to draw.

Perspective projection
Distance from the observer to the object is finite and
the object is viewed from a single point – projectors
are not parallel.
Perspective projections mimic what the human eyes
see, however, they are difficult to draw.
Engineering Drawing
Lecture 5

Projection of Points

1
 Orthographic Projection
A parallel projection technique in which the plane of
projection is perpendicular to the parallel line of
sight.

Orthographic projection technique can produce either

pictorial drawings that show all three dimensions of an
object in one view, or multi-views that show only two
 Transparent View@ Box
• Viewing faces

Side Face
 Multi-view Projection
In an orthographic projection, the object is oriented in such
a way that only two of its dimensions are shown. The
dimensions obtained are the true dimensions of the object
 Frontal plane of projection

Frontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the

Front View (FV) of the multi-view drawing is projected.
Front view of an object shows the width and height
dimensions.
 Horizontal plane of projection
Horizontal plane of projection is the plane onto
which the Top View of the multi-view drawing is
projected.
Top view of an object shows the width and depth
dimensions.
 Profile plane of projection
In multi-view drawings, the right side view is the standard
side view used. The right side view of an object shows the
depth and the height dimensions. The right side view is
projected onto the profile plane of projection, which is a
plane that is parallel to the right side of the object.
 Orientation of views from projection
planes
Top view is always
positioned and
aligned with the
front view, and side
view is always
positioned to the
side of and aligned
with the front view.
 Six Principal views
The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an
infinite number of views of an object. However, some
views are more important than others.

These principal views are six mutually perpendicular

views that are produced by six mutually perpendicular

Imagine suspending an object in a glass box with major

surfaces of the object positioned so that they are
parallel to the sides of the box, six sides of the box
become projection planes, showing the six views –
front, top, left, right, bottom and rear.
Six Principal Views
Object is
suspended in a
glass box
producing six
principal views:
each view is
perpendicular to
and aligned with
the adjacent
views.
Unfolding the glass
box to produce six-
view drawing
Top, front and bottom
views are all aligned
vertically and share
the same width
dimension.

Rear, left side, front

and right side views
are all aligned
horizontally and share
the same height
dimension.
 Conventional view placement
The three-view multiview
drawing is the standard
used in engineering and
technology, because many
times the other three
principal views are mirror
images and do not add to
the knowledge about the
object.

The standard views used in

a three-view drawing are
the top, front and the right
side views
The width dimensions are
aligned between the front
and top views, using vertical
projection lines.

The height dimensions are

aligned between the front
and the profile views, using
horizontal projection lines.

Because of the
positioning relative
views,
of the depth the
dimension
cannot be aligned using
projection lines. Instead,
three the
depth dimension is
measured in either the top or
right side view.
The principal
projection
planes
and
quadrants
used to
create first-
and third-
angle
projection
drawings
Orthographic projection
and Projection of points

1
8
 Example
TV
X
1

X Y

1. Visible
2. Hidden
3. Center

FV Y1 RHSV
Conventions
 Convention

• Projectors and the lines of the intersection of planes

of projections are shown as thin lines.
 Precedence of Lines

• Visible lines take precedence over all other

lines
0.70 mm

0.35 mm
• Center lines have lowest precedence

0.35 mm
Example: Application of Precedence
 Intersecting Lines in Orthographic Projections

Solid Line Intersections

Dashed Line Special Case Intersections

Intersection of hidden line
RHS FV
V

Y‹
Projection of Points
(Orthographic)
 A

POINT
Define its position with respect to the coordinates.
With respect to the VP, HP, & PP P

P
Direction of rotation of the HP
 Convention
• Top views are represented by only small letters eg. a.

• Their front views are conventionally represented

by small letters with dashes eg. a´

• Profile or side views are represented by small letters

with double dashes eg. a´´
 Convention

• The line
of
intersection of HP and
VP is denoted as
XY.

• The line
of
intersection of VP and
PP is denoted as
X1Y1
 Convention

• Projectors and the lines of the intersection of planes

of projections are shown as thin lines.
 Point in the First quadrant
Point P is 40 mm in front of VP, 50 mm above HP, 30 mm in front of leftprofile
plane (PP)
Point in the First quadrant
Point in the First quadrant
 Point in the First quadrant

Procedure

• Draw a thin horizontal

line, XY, to represent
the line of intersection

• Draw X1Y1 line to

represent the line of
intersection of VP
and PP.
• Draw the Top View (p). Y1
• Draw the projector line
• Draw the Front
View (p´)
 Point in the First quadrant
Procedure

• To project the right

view on the left PP,
draw a horizontal
projector through p to
intersect the 45 degree
line at m.
• through m draw a
vertical projector to
intersect the horizontal
projector
drawn through p´ at p
´´.
• p´´ is the right view of
point P
THINK ??
Engineering Drawing
Lecture 6

Projection of Lines

1
Projection of Points
(Orthographic)
 A

POINT
Define its position with respect to the coordinates.
With respect to the VP, HP, & PP P

P
Direction of rotation of the HP
 Convention
• Top views are represented by only small letters eg. a.

• Their front views are conventionally represented

by small letters with dashes eg. a´

• Profile or side views are represented by small letters

with double dashes eg. a´´
 Convention

• The line
of
intersection of HP and
VP is denoted as
XY.

• The line
of
intersection of VP and
PP is denoted as
X1Y1
 Convention

• Projectors and the lines of the intersection of planes

of projections are shown as thin lines.
 Point in the First quadrant
Point P is 40 mm in front of VP, 50 mm above HP, 30 mm in front of leftprofile
plane (PP)
Point in the First quadrant
Point in the First quadrant
T he i m ag e c an not be di s pl ayed. Y our c om p ut er m ay not have en ou g h m em or y t o ope n t he i m ag e, or t he i m age m ay have bee n c or r upt ed. Res t art your c om put er , and t hen ope n t he fil e ag ai n. If t he r ed x st ill ap pear s , you m ay hav e t o del et e t he i m age an d t he n i ns ert it agai n .
 Point in the First quadrant

Procedure

• Draw a thin horizontal

line, XY, to represent
the line of intersection

• Draw X1Y1 line to

represent the line of
intersection of VP
and PP.
• Draw the Top View (p). Y1
• Draw the projector line
• Draw the Front
View (p´)
 Point in the First quadrant
Procedure

• To project the right

view on the left PP,
draw a horizontal
projector through p to
intersect the 45 degree
line at m.
• through m draw a
vertical projector to
intersect the horizontal
projector
drawn through p´ at p
´´.
• p´´ is the right view of
point P
 Point in the Second quadrant
point P is 30 mm above HP, 50 mm behind VP and 45 mm in front of left PP
Since point P is located behind VP, the VP is assumed transparent.
Direction of rotation of the HP
Point in the Second quadrant
 Point in the Third quadrant
point P is 40 mm behind VP, 60 mm below HP and 30 mm
behind the right PP.
Since the three planes of projections lie in between the observer and the point P,
they are assumed as transparent planes.
Point in 3rd
quadrant
 Point in the Fourth quadrant
point P is 60 mm below HP, 50 mm in front of VP, 45 mm in
front of the left PP.
Point in the Fourth quadrant
First Angle Projection
Object in the first quadrant
• THIRD Projecûon
c bject behind plallo Top View

ht Front View Right Side View

Placing the object in
the third quadrant
puts the projection
planes between the
viewer and the
object.

When placed in the

first quadrant, the
object is between
the viewer and the
projection planes.
 Difference between first- and third-angle projections
First angle projection Third-angle projection
Object is kept in the first quadrant. Object is assumed to be kept
in the third quadrant.
Object lies between observer and the Plane of projection lies between
plane of projection. the observer and the object.
The plane of projection is assumed to The plane of projection is
be non-transparent. assumed to be transparent.
Front (elevation) view is drawn above Front (elevation) view is drawn
the XY line below the XY line

Top (plan) view is drawn below the XY Top (plan) view is drawn above
line the XY line
Left view is projected on the right Left view is projected on the left
plane and vise versa plane itself.
Followed in India, European Followed in USA
countries
 Symbol of projection
The method of projection used should be indicated in the
space provided for the purpose in the title box of the
drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw
the two sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis
horizontal.
Projections of Lines

2
7
 Straight line
Locus of a point, which moves linearly the
shortest distance between any two given points.

Location of a line
The location of a line in projection quadrants is
described by specifying the distances of its end
points from the VP, HP and PP.

• Parallel to both the planes.

• Parallel to one plane and perpendicular to
other.
the
• Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other.
• Inclined to both the planes.
 Projection of a line

• Obtained by projecting its end points on

planes of projections and then connecting
the points of projections.

• The projected length and inclination of a

line, can be different compared to its true
length and inclination.
Line parallel to a plane
Line inclined to a plane
 Line parallel to both HP & VP
Line of 80 mm length is
placed parallel to both
HP and VP.

The line is 70 mm above

HP, 60 mm in front of
VP.

end B is 30 mm in front
of right PP.
 Line parallel to both HP & VP…
Since the line is parallel to both HP
and VP, both the front view a'b' and
the top view ab are in true lengths.

Since the line is perpendicular to the

right PP, the left side view of the line
will be a point a´´(b´´).
 Line perpendicular to HP & parallel to VP

Line of 80 mm length
placed parallel to VP
and perpendicular to
HP.

The line is 60 mm in
front of VP and 70
mm in front of right
PP.

The lower end of the

line is 30 mm above
HP.
Line perpendicular to HP & parallel to VP…

Draw the front view a'b' = 80 mm

perpendicular to the XY line, with the lower
end b' lying 30 mm above the XY line.
Project the top view of the line which will be a
point a(b) at a distance of 60 mm below XY
line.
Since the line is 70 mm in front of the right PP
draw the X1Y1 line at a distance of 70 mm on
the right- side of the front view.
Through 0 the point of intersection of XY and
X1Y1, lines draw a 45° line.
Draw the horizontal projector through a(b) to
cut the 45 degree line at m.
Draw the horizontal projectors through a' and
b' to intersect the vertical projector drawn
through m at a´´ and b´´. a´´b´´ is the left view
of the line AB.
Line parallel to one plane and inclined
to the other
 Line parallel to VP and inclined to HP….

A line AB, 90 mm long

is inclined at 30
degrees to HP and is
parallel to VP.
The line is 80 mm in
front of VP.
The lower end A is 30
mm above HP.
The upper end B is 50
mm in front of the
right PP.
Line parallel to VP and inclined to
HP….
Mark a', the front view of the end A, 30 mm
above HP.
Draw the front view a´b´ = 90 mm inclined at
30° to XY line.
Project the top view ab parallel to XY line.
The top view is 80 mm in front of VP.
Draw the X Y line at a distance of 50 mm
from a'.
Draw a 45° line through o. Draw the
horizontal projector through the top view ab
to cut the 45 ° line at m. Draw a vertical
projector through m.
Draw the horizontal projectors through a' and
b' to intersect the vertical projector drawn
through m at a´´ and b´´. Connect a´´b´´
which is the left side view.
 Line inclined to HP and VP
Apparent Inclinations:  and 
Apparent Lengths: ab, a´b´
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Draw the projections of a
line AB inclined to both HP
and VP, whose true length
and true inclinations and
locations of one of the end
points, say A aregiven.

Since the line AB is inclined

at  to HP and  to VP – its
top view ab and the front
view a´b´ are not in
true lengths and they are
also not inclined at angles
 to HP and  to VP.
PRACTICE
Engineering Drawing
Lecture Slides

1
Engineering Drawing
Lecture 7

Projection of Lines Contd.

2
Projections of Lines

3
 Line inclined to HP and VP
Apparent Inclinations:  and 
Apparent Lengths: ab, a´b´
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Draw the projections of a
line AB inclined to both HP
and VP, whose true length
and true inclinations and
locations of one of the end
points, say A aregiven.

Since the line AB is inclined

at  to HP and  to VP – its
top view ab and the front
view a´b´ are not in
true lengths and they are
also not inclined at angles
 to HP and  to VP.
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Step 1: Rotate the line AB to make it parallel to VP.
Rotate the line AB about the end A,
keeping , the inclination of AB with
HP constant till it becomes parallel
to VP. This rotation of the line will
bring the end B to the new position
B1.

AB1 is the new position of the line

AB when it is inclined at  to HP
and parallel to VP.

Project AB1 on VP and HP. Since

AB1 is parallel to VP, a´b1´, the
projection of AB1 on VP is in true
length inclined at  to the XY line,
and ab1, the projection of AB1 on HP
is parallel to the XY line. Now the
line is rotated back to its original
position AB.
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Step 2: Rotate the line AB to make it parallel to HP.

Rotate the line AB about the end A

keeping  the inclination of AB with VP
constant, till it becomes parallel to HP.
This rotation of the line will bring the
end B to the second new Position B2.

AB2 is the new position of the line AB,

when it is inclined at  to VP and
parallel to HP.

Project AB2 on HP and VP. Since AB2

is parallel to HP, ab2, the projection of
AB2 on HP is in true length inclined at
 to XY line, and a´b2´ the projection of
AB2 on VP is parallel to XY line. Now
the line is rotated back to its original
position AB.
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Step 3: Locus of end B in the front view
When the line AB is swept around about the
end A keeping , the inclination of the line
with the HP constant, by one complete
rotation, the end B will always be at the same
vertical height above HP, and the locus of the
end B will be a circle which appears in the
front view as a horizontal line passing
through b'.

As long as the line is inclined at  to HP,

whatever may be the position of the line (i.e.,
whatever may be the inclination of the line
with VP) the length of the top view will
always be equal to ab1 and in the front view
the projection of the end B lies on the locus
line passing through b1’.

Thus ab1, the top view of the line when it is

inclined at  to HP and parallel to VP will be
equal to ab and b´, the projection of the end
B in the front view will lie on the locus line
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Step 4: Locus of end B in the top view
When the line AB is swept around about the end A
keeping  the inclination of the line with the VP
constant, by one complete rotation, the end B will
always be at the same distance in front of VP and
the locus of the end B will be a circle which appears
in the top view as a line, parallel to XY, passing
through b.

As long as the line is inclined at  to VP, whatever

may be the position of the line (i.e., whatever may
be the inclination of the line with HP), the length of
the front view will always be equal to a'b2' and in
the top view the projection of the end B lies on the
locus line passing through b2.

Thus a´b2´ the front view of the line when it is

inclined at  to VP and parallel to HP, will be equal
to a'b' and also b, the projection of the end B in the
top view lies on the locus line passing through b2.
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Step 5: To obtain the top and front views of AB
• From the above two cases of rotation it
can be said that

(i) the length of the line AB in top and front

views will be equal to ab1 and a'b2'
respectively and
(ii the projections of the end B, (i.e., b and b‘)
) should lie along the locus line passing through
b2 and b1´ respectively.

• With center a, and radius ab2 draw an

arc to intersect the locus line
through b2 at b. Connect ab the
top view of the line AB.
• Similarly with center a', and radius a'b2'
draw an arc to intersect the locus
line through b1' at b´. Connect a'b'
the front view of the line AB.
 Line inclined to HP and VP
Orthographic projection
1. As the location of one of the end
points (i.e. A) with respect to HP and
VP, is given, mark a and a´, the top
and the front views of point A.

2. Suppose the line AB is assumed to be

made parallel to VP and inclined at
 to HP. The front view of the
line will be equal to the true
length of the line and also, the
inclination of the line with HP is
seen in the front view. Draw a'b1'
passing through a' at  to XY line
and equal to the true length of
AB. a'b1' is projected down to get
ab1, the top view parallel to the XY line.
 Line inclined to HP and VP…….
Orthographic projection…..
3. Now the line AB is assumed to be made parallel
to HP and inclined at  to VP. The top view
of the line will be equal to the true length of
the line and also , the inclination of the line
with VP is seen in the top view.
4. Draw ab2 passing through a at  to the XY line
and equal to the true length of AB. ab2,
is projected up to get a'b2', the front view
parallel to the XY line.
5. Draw the horizontal locus lines through b2, and
b1'.
6. With center a and radius ab1, draw an arc to cut
the locus line drawn through b2 at b.
Connect ab, the top view of the line AB.
7. With center a' and radius a'b2´, draw an arc to
cut the locus line drawn through b1' at
b'. Connect a'b', the front view of the line AB.
 LOCUS OF B

TRUE LENGTH

FRONT VIEW

VP

TOP VIEW

TRUE LENGTH
LOCUS OF B
 To Find True length and true inclinations of a line

• Given : The top and front views of a line are given

• This is of great importance since some of the engineering
problems may be solved by this principle.

• The problems may be solved by

(i) Rotating line method or
(ii)Rotating trapezoidal plane method or
(iii) Auxiliary plane method.

• The top and front views of the object can be

drawn from the following data: (a) Distance between the
end projectors, (b) Distance of one or both the end points
from HP and VP and (c) Apparent inclinations of the line.
 Rotating line method

The method of obtaining the top

and front views of a line, when
its true length and true
inclinations are given.

When a view of a line is parallel

to the XY line, its other view will
be in true length and at true
inclination.

By following the above

procedure, in the reverse order,
the true length and true
inclinations of a line from the
given set of top and front views
can be found.
Step by Step Procedure

Top and front views

Draw the top view ab and

the front view a'b' as
given

2. Rotation of the top

view

With center a and radius ab

rotate the top view to the
new position ab1 to make it
parallel to the XY line. Since
ab1 is parallel to the XY line,
its corresponding front view
will be in true length and at
true inclination.
3. Rotation of the front view
Similarly, with center a' and
radius a'b' rotate the front
view to the new position a'b2'
parallel to the
XY line. Since a'b2' is
parallel to the XY line,

its
corresponding top view will be
in true length and at true
inclination.

In this position, the line will be

parallel to HP and inclined at  to
VP. Through b draw the locus of
B in the top view. Project b2' to
get b2, in the top view. Connect
ab2 which will be in true length
and true inclination 
which the given line AB makes
with
VP.
 Traces of a line

The trace of a line is defined as a point at which the

given line, if produced, meets or intersects a plane.

When a line meets HP, (or if necessary on the extended

portion-of HP), the point at which the line meets or
intersects the horizontal plane, is called horizontal
trace (HT)of the line and denoted by the letter H.

When a line meets VP (or if necessary on the extended

portion of VP), the point at which the line meets or
intersects the vertical plane, is called vertical trace (VT)
of the line and denoted by the letter V.
When the line is parallel to both HP and VP, there will be
no traces on the said planes. Therefore the traces of lines
are determined in the following positions of the lines.

Lines perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the

other.
Lines inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
Lines inclined to both the planes.
 Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to
the other

Since the line is perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the

other, the trace of the line is obtained only on the plane to
which it is perpendicular, and no trace of the line is obtained on
the other plane to which it is parallel.
TRACE of the line perpendicular to the VP
Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other
When the line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other,
the trace of the line is obtained only on the plane to which it is
inclined, and no trace is obtained on the plane to which it is
parallel.
A. Line inclined at  to HP and parallel
to VP
Line inclined at  to VP and parallel to HP
 Traces of a line inclined to both the planes
Line inclined at  to HP and  to VP.
The line when extended intersects HP at H, the horizontal trace, but will never intersectthe
portion of VP above XY line, i.e. within the portion of the VP in the 1st quadrant. Therefore
VP is extended below HP such that when the line AB is produced it will intersect in the
extended portion of VP at V, the vertical trace.
In this case both HT and VT of the line AB lie below XYline.
Projection of Planes
 Plane lane/ lat
surface lamina/ e
• A two dimensional surface having length and
breadth
with negligible thickness.
• I formed when any three non-collinear points
are
sjoined.
• Is bounded by straighVcurved lines and may be
either a regular figure or an irregular figure.

• Regt‹/ar p/ans - all the sides are

st/rface equal.
•
Irregular plane - sides will be unequal.
suNace
 Positioni of a Plane
•
n surface
A plane surface may be positioned in
space with reference to the three principal
planes of projection in any of the following
positions:
• Rarallel to one of the principal planes
and perpendicular to the other two.

• Perpendicular to one of the principal planes and

inclined to the other two.

• Inclined to all the three principal planes.

28
 TERMS USED IN PROJECTIONS OF PLANES

• True Shape The actual shape of a plane is called its true shape.
• Inclination with the HP: It is the acute angle the plane makes with the HP.
• Inclination with the VP It is the acute angle the plane makes with the VP.
• Traces of the Plane The traces of a plane are the lines of intersections of
the plane with the RPs.
• A plane may have a horizontal trace or vertical trace or both.
• Horizontal Trace (HT) The real or imaginary line of intersection of a plane
with the HP is called horizontal trace of the plane. HT is always
located in the TV.
• Vertical Trace (VT) The real or imaginary line of intersection of a plane with
the VP is called vertical trace of the plane. VT is always located in the FV.
• Line View or Edge View The view of a plane seen as a line is called line
view or edge view of the plane. One view of a perpendicular
plane is always an edge view.

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Example.1
A rectangle ABCD of size 30 mm x 20mm is parallel to
the HP and has a shorter side AB perpendicular to the
VP. Draw its projections

37
PRACTICE

3
8
Engineering Drawing
Lecture 8

Projection of Planes

1
 Positioni of a Plane
•
n surface
A plane surface may be positioned in
space with reference to the three principal
planes of projection in any of the following
positions:
• Rarallel to one of the principal planes
and perpendicular to the other two.

• Perpendicular to one of the principal planes and

inclined to the other two.

• Inclined to all the three principal planes.

Example.1
A rectangle ABCD of size 30 mm x 20mm is parallel to
the HP and has a shorter side AB perpendicular to the
VP. Draw its projections

3
4
5
FV

TV

6
7
8
9
Example.2 : Draw the projection of a circle of 5 cm diameter,
having its plane vertical and inclined at 30 to the VP. Its center is
3 cm above the HP and 2 cm in front of the VP.

10
Let us first assume that the plane is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.
So in top view a straight line and in front view the circle.

Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and name them 1´, 2´, 3´, 4´
etc. Project these points to top view. 1
1
Rotate the top view by 30 to the XY line (because it is inclined to VP at 30)

Project the points to front view to get the final front 1

2
view.
Example: A rectangle ABCD of size 30 mm x 20 mm is inclined
to the HP at 30°. Its shorter side AB is parallel to the HP and
inclined at 45°to the VP. Draw the projections of the rectangle.

13
Example 4. A Pentagonal plane lamina of edge 25 mm is resting on HP
with one of its corners touching it such that the plane surface makes
an angle of 60 with HP. Two of the edges containing the corner on
which the lamina rests make equal inclinations with HP. When the
edge opposite to this corner makes an angle of 45 with VP and nearer
to the observer, draw the TV and FV of the lamina.

14
A. The lamina is resting on HP.
B. The lamina rests with corner C on HP such that lamina is inclined at
60 to
HP. Edge ae is perpendicular to XY line.
C. Lamina is rotated such that edge AE is inclined at 45 to VP
and redrawn.
 Engineering Drawing
Lecture 9

Projections on Auxiliary
Planes
Need for Auxiliary Planes
▪ Sometimes none of the three principal
orthographic views of an object show the
different edges and faces of an object in their
true sizes, since these edges and faces, are
not parallel to any one of the three principal
planes of projection.

▪ In order to show such edges and faces in

their true sizes, it becomes necessary to set
up additional planes of projection other than
the three principal planes of projection in the
positions which will show them in true sizes.
▪ If an edge or a face is to be shown in true size, it
should be parallel to the plane of projection.
▪ Hence the additional planes are set up so as to be
parallel to the edges and faces which should be
shown in true sizes.
▪ These additional planes of projection which are set up
to obtain the true sizes are called Auxiliary Planes.
▪ The views projected on these auxiliary planes are
called

The auxiliary view method may be applied

▪ To find the true length of a line.
▪ To project a line which is inclined to both HP and VP as
a point.
▪ To project a plane surface or a lamina as a line.
Types of auxiliary planes
Usually the auxiliary planes are set up such that they are
parallel to the edge or face which is to be shown in true size
and perpendicular to any one of the three principal planes of
projection
Therefore, theof selection
principalplanes projection ofit the should
auxiliary planebeas to
which of the obviously depends on the shape of the object
perpendicular,
shown
whose in trueorsize.
edge face that is to be
If the auxiliary plane selected is perpendicular to HP and
inclined to
VP, the views
auxiliary front ofview and the
the object auxiliaryplane
projected on the is called plane
auxiliary is
auxiliary
vertical plane and denoted as AVP.
called
If the auxiliary plane is perpendicular to VP and inclined to
HP, the view of the object projected on the auxiliary plane is
called auxiliary top view and the auxiliary plane is called
auxiliary inclined plane and denoted as AIP.
 Auxiliary Vertical Plane

AVP is placed in the

first quadrant with its
surface perpendicular
to HP and inclined at 
to VP.

The object is to be
placed in the space
in between HP, VP and
AVP. The AVP
intersects HP along
the
X1Y1 line.
The direction of sight
to project the
auxiliary front view will
be normal to AVP.

After obtaining the top view, front view and auxiliary front view on HP, VP
and AVP, the HP, with the AVP being held perpendicular to it, is rotated so
as to be in-plane with that of VP, and then the AVP is rotated about the
X1Y1 line so as to be in-plane with that of already rotated HP
Auxiliary Inclined Plane

AIP is placed in the first

quadrant with its surface
perpendicular to VP and
inclined at  to HP.

The object is to be placed in

the space between HP, VP
and AIP.

The AIP intersects the VP

along the X1Y1 line.

The direction of sight to project the auxiliary top view will be normal to the
AIP.
After obtaining the top view, front view and auxiliary top view on HP, VP
and AIP, HP
is rotated about the XY line independently (detaching the AIP from HP).
The AIP is then rotated about X1Y1 line independently so as to be in-
plane with that of VP.
Projection of Points on Auxiliary Planes
Projection on AVP
Point P is situated in the first quadrant at a height m above HP.
An auxiliary vertical plane AVP is set up perpendicular to HP and
inclined at  to VP. The point P is projected on VP, HP andAVP.
p' is the projection on VP, p is the projection on HP and P1' is the
projection on AVP. Since point is at a height m above HP, both p'
and p1’ are at a height m above the XY and X1Y1lines, respectively
HP is rotated by 90 degree to
bring it in plane of VP.

After the HP lies in-plane

with VP, the AVP is rotated
about the X1Y1, line, so that
it becomes in-plane with that
of both HP and VP.
Orthographic
projections
Draw the XY line and
mark p and p', the
top and front views of
the point P.

Since AVP is inclined

at  to VP, draw the
X1Y1 line inclined at 
to the XY line at any
convenient distance
from p.

Since point P is at a height m above HP, the auxiliary front view

p1' will also be at a height m above the X1Y1 line.
Therefore, mark P1’ by measuring o1p1’=op’ = m on the projector
drawn from p
perpendicular to the X1Y1 line.
Projection on AIP
Point Pis situated in first quadrant at a distance n from VP. An
auxiliary plane AIPis set up perpendicular to VP and inclined at 
to HP. The point P is projected on VP, HP and AIP.
p' is the projection on VP, p is the projection on HP and P1 is the
projection on AIP.
Since the point is at a distance n from VP, both p and p1 are at a
distance n above the XY and X1Y1 lines,respectively
HP is rotated by 90
degree about XY line
to bring it in plane with
VP.

After the HP lies in-plane

with VP, the AIP is
rotated about the X1Y1,
line, so that it
becomes in-plane with
that of both HP and VP.

p and p’ lie on a
vertical projector
perpendicular to the XY
line, and p’ and p1 lie on
a projector perpendicular
to the X1Y1 line which
it self is inclined at 
to XY line.
Orthographic
projections
Draw the XY line and
mark p and p', the
top and front views of
the point P.
Since AIP is inclined
at  to HP, draw the
X1Y1 line inclined at
 to the XY line at
any convenient
distance from p’.

Since point P is at a distance n infront of VP, the auxiliary top

view p1 will also be at a distance n from the X1Y1 line.

Therefore, mark P1 by measuring o1p1=op = n on the projector

drawn from p‘ perpendicular to the X1Y1 line.
Step by step procedure to draw auxiliary views
Auxiliary front view Auxiliary top view
• Draw the top and front • Draw the top and front
views. views
• Draw X1Y1 line • Draw X1Y1 line inclined at
inclined at  (the  (the inclination of
inclination of AVP with AIP with HP) to XY line.
VP) to the XY line.
• Draw the projectors • Draw the projectors
through the top views of through the front views of
the points perpendicular the points perpendicular to
to the X1Y1 line. the X1Y1 line.
• The auxiliary front view • The auxiliary top view of a
of a point is obtained by point is obtained by
stepping off a distance stepping off a distance
from the X1Y1 line equal from X1Y1 line equal to to
to the distance of the the distance of the top view
front view of the given of the given point from the
point from the XY line. XY line
Projection of lines on auxiliary planes

The problems on projection of lines inclined to both

the planes may also be solved by the auxiliary plane
methods.

In this method, the line is always placed parallel to

both HP

auxiliary plane will be perpendicular to VP and

inclined at  to HP, i.e., AIP, and the other will be
perpendicular to HP and inclined at  (true
inclination) or  (apparent inclination) to VP.
Problem 1:
Draw the projections of a line 80 mm long inclined at 300 to HP
and its
top view appears to be inclined at 600 to VP. One of the ends of
the line is
45 mm above HP and 60 mm infrontof VP. Draw its projections
by
auxiliary plane method
Solution
Draw the top and
front views of one of
the ends, say A, 45
mm above HP and 60
mm infront of VP.

Assume that the line

is parallel to both HP
and VP and draw its
top and front views.

Since the line is to

be inclined at 300 to
HP, set up an AIP
inclined at 300 to HP
and perpendicular to
VP.
Draw X1Y1 line inclined
at 0 to XY line at
30
any convenient
distance from it.
To project an auxiliary
top view on AIP,
draw projections from
and b
a1’and on1’ perpendicular
them step
to X1Y1 line,
1a1=3a and 2b1=4b off
the X1Y1 line. from

Connect ab which will

be the auxiliary top
view.

Since the top view of the line appears inclined to VP at 600,

draw the X2Y2 line inclined at 600 to the auxiliary top view ab
at any convenient distance from it. Draw the projections
from a and b perpendicular to X2Y2 and on them step off 5a’ =
3a1’ and 6b’=4b1’. Connect a’b’ which will be the auxiliary front
view.
Problem 2:
A line AB 60 mm long has one of its extremities 60 mm infront of VP
and 45 mm above HP. The line is inclined at 300 to HP and 450 to VP. Draw
the projections of the line by the auxiliary plane method.

Solution
Let A be one of the
extremities of the line AB at
distance 60 mm infront of VP
and 45 mm above HP.

Mark a1 and a1’ the top and

the front views of the extremity
A.

Initially the line is assumed

to be parallel to HP and VP.
a1b1 and a1’b1’ are
the projections of the line in
this position.
Then instead of rotating the line
so as to make it inclined to both
the planes, an AIP is set up at an
angle , which the line is
supposed to make with HP and
the auxiliary top view is projected
on it.

To draw the Auxiliary Top View on

AIP
Draw X1Y1 line inclined at  = 300
to the XY line. Mark AIP and VP.
Project the auxiliary top view ab
The projections ab on the AIP and
a1'b1' on VP are the auxiliary view
and the front view of the line when
it is inclined at  to HP and parallel
to VP.
Since the line is inclined at true
inclination  to VP, to project the
auxiliary front view an AVP
inclined at  to VP should be
setup.
To draw the Auxiliary F.V. on AVP
Already the line is inclined at  to
AIP and parallel to VP. If the line is
to be inclined at to VP, an
AVP inclined at  to the
given line should be setup.
But we know that when a line
is inclined to both theplanes,
they will not be inclined
at true inclinations to the
XY line, instead they will be at
apparent inclinations with the XY
line. Therefore X2Y2, the line of
intersection of AIP and AVP
cannot be drawn directly at  to
ab.
The apparent inclination  of ab
with the X2Y2 line should be found
out. To
find , through a draw ab2 equal to
60 mm, the true length of AB
inclined
at  = 450 to ab.
 Through b2, draw
the locus of B
parallel to X1Y1 line.
With center a and
radius ab strike an
arc to intersect the
locus of B at b3.
inclination
Connect ab3with
and ab.
Now
draw
measure the itsX2Y2
line inclined at  to
ab. Mark AVP and AIP
on either
side of X2Y2. Project
the
auxiliary front view
a’b’. ab and a’b’
are the
required projections.
 Shortest distance between two lines
Two lines may be parallel, or intersecting, or non-parallel
and
non-intersecting.
When the lines are intersecting, the point of
intersection lies on both the lines and hence these
lines have no shortest distance between them.
Non-parallel and non-intersecting lines are called Skew
Lines.
The parallel lines and the skew lines have a shortest
distance between them.
The shortest distance between the two lines is the shortest
perpendicular drawn between the two lines.
Shortest distance between two parallel lines
The shortest distance between two parallel lines is equal to the
length of the perpendicular drawn between them.

If its true length is to be measured, then the two given parallel

lines should be shown in their point views.

If the point views of the lines are required, then first they have to
be shown in their true lengths in one of the orthographic views.
If none of the orthographic views show the given lines in their true
lengths, an auxiliary plane parallel to the two given lines should be
set up to project them in their true lengths on it.

Even the auxiliary view which shows the lines in their true lengths
may not show the perpendicular distance between them in true
length. Hence another auxiliary plane perpendicular to the two
given lines should be set up. Then the lines appear as points on this
auxiliary plane and the distance between these point views will be
the shortest distance between them.
Shortest distance between
two parallel lines
Projections of a pair of parallel
lines AB and PQ are shown. ab
and a'b' are the top and front
views of the line AB. pq and p'q'
are the top and front views of
the line PQ.

Since the top and front views

of the lines are inclined to
the XY line, neither the top
view nor the front view show
the lines in their true
lengths.

To show these lines in their true lengths, an auxiliary plane,

parallel to the two given lines, should be set up parallel to the
projections of the lines either in the top view or front view.
In this case the auxiliary plane is set up so as to be parallel
to the two given lines in top view
Draw the X1Y1 line parallel
to ab and pq at any
convenient distance from
them.
Through the points a, b, p and
q, draw projector lines
perpendicular to X1Y1 line.
Measure 5a1’=1a1’ along the
projector drawn through a
from the X1Y1 line, and
6b1’=2b’ along the projector
drawn through b from the
X1Y1 line.
Connect a1'b1' which will be
equal to the true length of
the line AB.

Similarly by measuring 7p1' =

3p' and 8q1' = 4q' obtain p1'q1'
the true length view of the
line PQ.
The line AB and PQ are
shown in their true lengths,
and now an another
auxiliary plane
perpendicular to the two
given lines should be set up
to project their point views
on it.

Draw the line X2Y2

perpendicular to a1’b1' and
p1'q1' ata1'b1any p1'q1'.
convenient
Produce ' and
distance from them. alon
Measure a5 = b6 = 9a1
a1'b1' produced g
Similarly
from obtain the
X2Y2.
point,view
p1(q1) by measuring
p1(10)=p7
= q8.
Connect p1a1 the
required shortest distance
between the lines AB and
PQ in its true length
 Shortest distance between two skew lines

Projections of two skew lines

AB and CD are shown as
A’B’, C’D’ and AB and CD.
Determine the shortest
distance EF between the line
segments

First an Auxiliary A1B1 is

made showing the true
length of AB.
A second auxiliary view showing the point view ofAB is projected.
For this draw the reference line normal to A1B1 and draw the
projectors C2 D2 (of C1 and D1).
The shortest distance F2E2 can be established perpendicular to CD.
To project FE back to the Front and Top Views, FE is first projected in first
auxiliary plane by first projecting point E, which is on CD, from the second to
the first auxiliary view and then back to the front and top views.
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