Kinematics and Dynamics of

Machines Dr. Awani Bhushan

Assistant Professor
Degree of Freedom (DOF) SMEC, VIT Chennai
Module 1: Tutorial problem based on DOF
 Introduction
Theory of Machines: may be defined as that branch of Engineering-
science, which deals with the study of relative motion between the
various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them.
Kinematics of Machinery :
• It deals with the relative motions of different parts of
a mechanism without taking into consideration the
forces producing the motion.
• Thus, it is a study from geometric point of view, to
know the displacement, velocity and acceleration of
different parts of a mechanism.

Dynamics of Machines: on the other hand, deals

with the study of motion of the different parts of a
mechanism considering the inertia forces and/or
external forces causing the motion.
 Mechanics of Machines /Theory of Machines
Mechanics: It is that branch of scientific analysis which deals with motion, time and force .
Mechanisms is a device that transforms input forces and movement into a desired
set of output forces and movement.

Example, Slider-crank mechanism used in internal combustion engine or

reciprocating air compressor, where the rotary movement of the crank is converted
through the connecting rod into the reciprocating motion of the slider, or vice-
versa.

Machine is a combination of the mechanisms which receives energy and

transforms it into some useful work from which we reduce the human efforts. A
machine consists of a number of parts or bodies.
Kinematic Link (or) Element:
 Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known as
kinematic link or element.
 link is defined as a member of a mechanism which is connected to the other
members & having relative motion between them.
Thus a link should have the following two characteristics:
Ex: Crank, Connecting rod, Engine frame, Piston, etc.
1. It should have relative motion, and
2. It must be a resistant body.
• Types

Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points .

 Types of links-basis of deformation
1.Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergo any
deformation while transmitting motion. No link can be perfectly rigid
body, but can be resistant body.
i.e. it must be capable of transmitting the required motion
with negligible deformation.
Ex: Crank, connecting rod, piston, etc.
2. Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a
manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
Ex: Belts, ropes, chains,
wires which transmit tensile forces only.

3. Fluid link: A fluid link makes use of a fluid (liquid or gas) to transmit
motion, by means of pressure. Fluid links always undergo deformation
when transmitting motion.
 Some good examples where fluid links are used are pneumatic
punching presses, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic brakes.
 Kinematic Pair
When two kinematic links are in contact with each other such that the relative
motion between them is completely or successfully controlled/constrained (i.e. in
a definite direction), the pair is known as kinematic pair.

• It is a joint of two links having relative motion between them.

Kinematic
Pair
1. Binary joint. When two links are joined at the same connection, the joint is
known as binary joint.
2. Ternary joint. When three links are joined at the same connection, the joint
is known as ternary joint.

3. Quaternary joint. When four links are joined at the same connection, the
joint is called a quaternary joint. It is equivalent to three binary joints.
Kinematic pairs are classified on the basis of
 Nature of relative motion
 Nature of contact between two links
 Nature of mechanical constraint
 Kinematic pairs based on nature of relative motion
1. Prismatic or Sliding Pair – Sliding pair is constituted by two elements so
connected that one is constrained to have a sliding motion relative to the
other.
Eg : Prismatic bar & rectangular hole, Piston & cylinder of an engine
2. Turning pair/Revolute pair – When connections of the two elements are such that
only a constrained motion of rotation of one element with respect to the other is
possible, the pair constitutes a turning pair
3. Rolling pair – When the pairing elements have rolling contact, the pair formed is
called rolling pair. Eg. Bearings, Belt and pulley.

Belt and pulley

Fig. Ball bearing
4. Screw / Helical pair – When the nature of contact between the elements of a pair is
such that one element can turn about the other by screw threads, it is known as
screw pair. Eg. Nut and bolt.

5. Cylindrical Pair
6. Spherical pair – Sphere turns inside a fixed link. A spherical pair will have surface
contact
Eg : Ball and socket joint.

7. Planar pair
 Summary
Sliding pair – sliding motion.
Eg : Prismatic bar & rectangular hole, Piston & cylinder of an
engine
Turning pair – Turning / revolving motion .
Eg: shaft & bearings, pin joints / hinges
Rolling pair – One can roll over the other.
Eg: Ball bearings, roller bearings.
Screw / Helical pair – Turning + sliding motion .
(This is achieved by cutting mating threads on two links)
Eg : lead screw and a nut of a lathe
Spherical pair – Sphere turns inside a fixed link.
Eg : Ball and socket joint.
2. Kinematic Pairs according to Nature of contact

Lower pair – a pair of links having surface or area contact b/w the members is
known as a lower pair.

Higher pair – when a pair has a point or line contact b/w the links, is known as
Higher pair.
 Example of Lower Pair
• Revolute or Turning • Prismatic or Sliding Pair • Spherical Pair
Pair

• Screw Pair
Cylindrical Pair
Planar Pair
 Example- Higher pair
• Kinematic pair having line contact or point contact
between the links.
 3. Kinematic pairs based on nature of
mechanical constraint
Self Closed pair (form closed)
• Elements of pairs held together mechanically due to their
geometry constitute a closed pair. They are also called
form-closed or self-closed pair.
OR
• When the two elements of a pair are connected together
mechanically in such a way that only required kind of
relative motion occurs, it is then known as self closed pair.
• Elements of the pair are held together mechanically.
• All the lower pairs and some of the higher pairs comes
under this category.
• If the links in the pair have direct mechanical
contact even without the application of external force.
Unclosed pair (force closed)
• Elements of pairs held together by the action of external forces
constitute unclosed or force closed pair .Eg. Cam and follower.
• The two links of a pair are in contact either due to gravity or some spring
action.
 Constrained motion - Types
 Completely constrained motion
 Incompletely constrained motion
 Partially (or successfully) constrained motion

1. Completely constrained motion: When relative motion between pairing

elements takes place in one direction, it is called completely constrained motion.

Even when any external force is applied, a square bar always slides inside a
square hole. It does not turn.
 2. Incompletely constrained motion
• When relative motion between pairing elements takes place in more than one
direction, it is called incompletely constrained motion.
• A good example of incompletely constrained motion is the motion of a shaft inside
a circular hole. Depending on the direction of external forces applied, the shaft may
slide or turn (or do both) inside the circular hole.

A change in direction of the impressed force may alter

the direction of relative motion between the pair.

3.Partially (or successfully) constrained motion

• A kinematic pair is said to be partially or successfully
constrained if the relative motion between its links
occurs in a definite direction, not by itself, but by some
other means.

Eg. Foot step bearing, where shaft is constrained from

moving upwards, by its self weight.
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Kinematic Chain
A kinematic chain is a group of links either joined together or arranged in a
manner that permits them to move relative to one another.

If the links are connected in such a way that no motion is possible, it results
in a locked chain or structure.

A structure is an assemblage of resistant bodies having no relative

motion between among them. Usually they are meant for
carrying loads having straining action.

Fig. Locked chain or structure

Ex: Railway bridge, Roof truss, Machine frames, etc
 Mechanism
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the
chain is known as Mechanism. It may be used for
transmitting or transforming motion.

A mechanism with four links is known as simple

mechanism, the mechanism with more than
four links is known as compound mechanism.

Machine
It is mechanism or a group of mechanisms used to
perform useful work or converting the available
energy into useful work.
 Differences between a Mechanism & a Machine

.Sl Mechanism Machine

No
1 A mechanism is meant to A machine is meant for
transmit or transform motion. transmitting energy to do useful
work.
2 No mechanism is necessarily a A machine is an assemblage of
.machine .mechanisms
3 A mechanism is a working model A machine is a practical
.of any machine development of any machine.
Ex: Clock, Type writer, Mini Ex: Steam engine, IC engine,
.drafter, etc Shaper, etc.
 Differences between a Machine & Structure
.Sl Machine Structure
No
1 The parts of a machine move The parts of a structure do not
relative to one another. move relative to one another.

2 A machine transforms the No such energy transformation takes

.available energy into useful work .place
3 The links of a machine can The members of a structure can
.transmit both motion & forces transmit forces only.
Ex: Lathe, Engine, Pumps, Ex: Roof truss, Bridge, Machine
.Compressors, etc frames, engine frames, etc.
Degrees of freedom of a mechanism/Mobility
• It is the number of independent coordinates required to describe the
position of a body in space. A free body in space can have six degrees of
freedom. i.e., linear positions along x, y and z axes and rotational/angular
positions with respect to x, y and z axes.

• The number of independent relative motions possible for a mechanism.

OR
• The number of inputs that need to be provided in order to create a
predictable output.
DOF of PLANAR SYSTEM with Two unconnected links

Three independent coordinates needed to specify the location of the link

AB in plane, x1, y1, and angle 1

Two unconnected links have a total of six DOF

A Rigid link in the plane has three

degrees of freedom and in space six
DOF.
 DOF of a PLANAR SYSTEM with Two connected links (full joint)

When these links are connected by a full joint, Δy1 and Δy2 are combined as Δy,
and Δx1 and Δx2 are combined as Δx. This removes two DOF, leaving four DOF.

• Note that in any real mechanism, one link of the kinematic chain is grounded (fixed).
• Gruebler’s equation for DOF
n = 3(L −1) − 2J-h
n = degree of freedom or mobility
L = number of links
J = number of binary joints or kinematic lower pair
h= number of higher pair or point joint
Degrees of Freedom of a mechanism
Kutzbach’s (modified Gruebler’s) equation

DOF = 3(l – 1) – 2J

DOF = degree of freedom or mobility

l = number of links, including ground link
J = number of joints

h = number of higher pair is zero

DOF ≤ 0 structure

DOF > 0 mechanism

 Degree of Freedom (DOF) – example
Four Bar mechanism
N = 4 , J = 4 pin connections, h = 0

DOF = 3(4 – 1) – 2(4) – (0) = 1

Slider crank mechanism

N = 4 , J = 3 pin connections + 1 slider = 4 ,
h=0
DOF = 3(4 – 1) – 2(4) – (0) = 1

1 DOF means only one input

(power source) is needed to
control the mechanism
 N =5
J=5
h=0
DOF=3 x (5 – 1) – 2x5 –
1x0
= 12 – 10 – 0
=2
 N =6
J= 7
h=0
DOF =3 x (6 – 1) – 2x7–0
1x0
= 15– 14 – 0
=1
 N =6
J=7
h=0
DOF =3 x (6 – 1) – 2x7 –
1x0
= 15 – 14 – 0
=1
n = 3(L −1) − 2J-h
 N = 11
J = 15
h=0
DOF =3 x (11 – 1) –
2x15 – 1x0
= 30 – 30 – 0
=0
n = 3(L −1) − 2J-h
Dr. Manoj Kumar R, Assistant
Professor, VIT Chennai
• If the DOF is positive, it will be a mechanism, and the links will have
relative motion.
• If the DOF is exactly zero, then it will be a structure, and no motion is
possible.
• If the DOF is negative, then it is a preloaded structure or super structure,
which means that no motion is possible and some stresses may also be
present at the time of assembly.
 Grashof condition
• The Grashof condition is a very simple relationship that predicts the
rotation behavior or rotatability of a four bar linkage’s inversions based
only on the link lengths.
• Lets : length of shortest link = S
length of longest link = L
length of one remaining link = P
length of other remaining link = Q

According to Grashof ’s law for a four bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest
and longest link lengths should be lesser than the sum of the remaining
two link lengths if there is to be continuous relative motion between the
two links.
Then for Grashof linkage S + L < P +Q
This is called a Class I kinematic chain
• If the inequality is not true, then the linkage is Non-Grashof and no link
will be capable of a complete revolution relative to any other link.
• This is as known Class II kinematic chain or Non-Grashof kinematic chain.

Types of kinematic Chains

There are three important types of kinematic chains which have 4
lower pairs , the pairs are turning pair or sliding pair. They are;
1. Four bar chain or Quadric cycle chain
2. Single slider crank chain
3. Double slider crank chain
Four bar chain or Quadric cycle chain and their Inversions
An inversion of a mechanism is obtained by fixing the different links of a
kinematic chain.
Inverting a mechanism does not change the relative motion between the links,
but drastically changes their absolute motions. (w.r.t. the fixed link)

1.Crank and lever Mechanism (Beam Engine)

2.Double Crank Mechanism (Coupling Rod of locomotive)
3.Double Lever Mechanism (Watt’s Indicator Mechanism)
 Inversion of a four bar Chain
1. Beam Engine: (Crank Lever Mechanism): In this mechanism, the
crank rotates about the fixed center A, the lever oscillates a fixed
center D. The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod
which reciprocates due to rotation of the crank.

Lever (link 4)

C Connecting
D
Piston rod rod (Link 3)

Cylinder

Crank (link 2)

Frame (link 1)

BEAM ENGINE
 Inversion of a four bar Chain
2. Coupling rod of a locomotive: (Double Crank Mechanism): This is an
example of a double crank mechanism where both cranks rotate
about fixed centers A & B as shown In fig.
In this mechanism, the opposite links are equal in length i.e. AB=CD,
AD=BC, Link AB is fixed. Link CD is the coupling rod which is meant
for transmitting rotary motion from one wheel to another.

Link 2
Link 4
B Link 3 C

A D
Link 1

COUPLING ROD OF A LOCOMOTIVE

 3. Watt’s Indicator mechanism (Double lever Mechanism):
This is an example of double lever mechanism where both the
pivoted links can only oscillate about the fixed center as shown
in fig.
The links AB & CD oscillate about the fixed centers A & D and
the point P on the connecting link CB traces a figure–eight
shaped path, a considerable portion of which is approximately
straight line.

C D

A B
 Single Slider Crank Chain & its Inversions
In this mechanism, the crank rotates about a fixed center, the
connecting rod oscillates The end of the connecting rod is
connected to a piston or slider which reciprocates in a fixed
guide or cylinder.
Applications: Reciprocating engine, Reciprocating compressor
A

2 3
B
O 4

1 1
 Single Slider Crank Chain & its Inversions
By fixing the different links, one can obtain many inversions
which will find application in different mechanisms.

Connecting rod fixed

application- oscillatory
engine
Slider fixed-
Crank fixed Beam engine
First Inversion of single slider mechanism
Pendulum pump or Bull engine. In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by
fixing the cylinder or link 4 (i.e. sliding pair), as shown in Fig. 5.23.

In this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates, the connecting rod (link 3) oscillates
about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4 at A and the piston attached to the piston
rod (link 1) reciprocates.

Hand Pump
Second Inversion of single slider mechanism
Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome engine. Sometimes back, rotary internal
combustion engines were used in aviation. But now-a-days gas turbines are used in its place.

It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves about fixed center D, as shown in
Fig. 5.25, while the crank (link 2) is fixed.

In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link 4) rotates, the piston (link 3) reciprocates
inside the cylinders forming link 1.
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism. This mechanism is mostly used in
shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming
the turning pair is fixed, as shown in Fig. 5.27.

The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed. The slider (link
4) attached to the crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link 1) which
oscillates at a pivoted point D. The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to
which a cutting tool is fixed.
Third Inversion of single slider mechanism
Oscillating cylinder engine/ Reciprocating engine. The arrangement of oscillating
cylinder engine mechanism, as shown in Fig. 5.24, is used to convert reciprocating
motion into rotary motion.

When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to piston rod (link 1)
reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link
at A.
Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism. This mechanism is
mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary internal
combustion engines.
 1. BY FIXING THE CRANK
By fixing the crank, the following useful mechanisms
are obtained;
• Rotary or Gnome Engine
• Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
Rotary Engine Or Gnome Engine

Dr. Manoj Kumar R, Assistant

Professor, VIT Chennai
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
(Used in work shops for metal cutting)

Timeforfor wardstroke B oˆ 2 B  1

 
Timeforret urnstroke B oˆ 2 B   2
 2. BY FIXING THE CONNECTING ROD
By fixing the connecting rod, the following useful
mechanisms are obtained;
• Crank & slotted lever quick return mechanism
• Oscillating cylinder engine
Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

QRR is always greater than one because

time taken for return stroke is lesser than
time taken for forward stroke

Timeforfor wardstroke B oˆ 2 B  1

 
Timeforret urnstroke B oˆ 2 B   2
Application of Crank and slotted lever quick
return motion mechanism

Courtesy:www.technologystudent.com
Oscillating cylinder engine: II inversion of
slider crank mechanism (connecting rod
fixed)
 3. BY FIXING THE SLIDER
By fixing the Slider, the following useful mechanisms are obtained;
Pendulum Pump or Hand Pump
 DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN
It is a kinematic chain consisting of two
turning pairs and two sliding pairs.
 SCOTCH –YOKE MECHANISM
Turning pairs –1&2, 2&3; Sliding pairs – 3&4,
4&1
 SCOTCH –YOKE MECHANISM
The Scotch yoke is a mechanism for converting the linear motion
of a slider into rotational motion or vice-versa. The piston or other
reciprocating part is directly coupled to a sliding yoke with a slot
that engages a pin on the rotating part.

Dr. Manoj Kumar R, Assistant

Professor, VIT Chennai
SCOTCH –YOKE MECHANISM
Inversions of double slider crank mechanism
Elliptical trammel
AC = p and BC = q, then, x = q.cosθ and y = p.sinθ.
Rearranging, 2 2
 x  y
     cos 2   sin 2  1
q  p
 Elliptical trammel
Here link 4 is fixed. Any point on the link 2 describes an ellipse as it
moves. The mid-point of the link 2 will obliviously describe a circle.
Elliptical trammel
OLDHAM COUPLING
• An Oldham coupling is used to transfer torque between two
parallel but not collinear shafts.
• It has three discs, one coupled to the input, one coupled to
the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two
by tongue and groove. The tongue and groove on one side is
perpendicular to the tongue and groove on the other.
• The coupler is named for John Oldham who invented it in
Ireland, in 1820, to solve a paddle placement problem in a
steamship design.
• The middle disc rotates around its center at the same speed
as the input and output shafts.
• Its center traces a circular orbit, twice per rotation, around
the midpoint between input and output shafts.