Observation method

Chapter 11
 Observation
• To collect data, a researcher needs to see things and
listen to people carefully.
• An observation is not just seeing something, it is
scientific seeing. Through observation one can see
things which normally one may not be able to notice.
• An “observation” means that special care is being
taken: not just “to see” but “to watch over” (Kaplan,
1964).

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 Observation Method
• Involves recording the behavioral patterns of
people, objects, and events in a systematic
manner to obtain information about the
phenomenon
• Observer does not question or communicate with
the people being observed
• Can be used in all types of research designs
(exploratory, descriptive, causal)
 Main Purposes of Observation

• Be able to have insight and better understanding on

the subjects of study

• Have the opportunity to see things that may be

different from routine matters

• Enable one to learn things that people are not

willing to talk about

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 What to be Observed? (1)

• Physical structure and surroundings

• People (their characteristics) and their
action

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 What to be Observed? (2)
• Physical signs/characteristics including special features like
cloths and appearance
• Expressive movement, body movement, face, emotions
• Physical location i.e., distance to community center
• Time duration, how much attention one pays to something
like cultivation and harvesting period, etc.

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 Types of Observation

Type of Observation-
1) Participant Observation
2) Non-Participant Observation
 Types of Observation
• Non-participant Observation
 without participating in activities of a community
observe exclusively as an observer
• Participant Observation
 participating in activities of a community i.e.,
meetings, discussions, ceremonies, rituals, etc.

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 Observation: Usefulness
• This gives an opportunity for an observer to get closer to
people and subject for investigation and to understand the
community or institution or the activities being observed.
• This type of observation has been used by social scientists for
a long time by spending a long period in a communities,
observing what was going on? how people did things? what
functions they performed and so on?

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Relative Advantages of Observation
• Accurate measurement of actual behavior
• Recoding of a large amount of detailed behavioral data
• Reduction of confounding factors
• No reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the
interviewer and the interviewing process is reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently, this
methods may be cheaper and faster than survey
methods
 Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• Lack of generalizability of the data

• Inability to explain current behaviours or events
• The complexity of observing the behavior
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)
can bias the data.
• Time-consuming and expensive
• Difficult to observe certain forms of behaviour
• Maybe unethical
– It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather
than as being in competition with them.
 Observation Methods
Structured versus Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher specifies

in detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors

all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to
the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing
with new toys.
 Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are

unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may
be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden
cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales
clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are

aware that they are under observation.
 Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it

takes places in the environment. For example, one
could observe the behavior of respondents eating
fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is

observed in an artificial environment, such as a test
kitchen.
 A Classification of Observation Methods
Fig. 6.3

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
 Observation Methods
Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it

occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate
the phenomenon being observed but merely
records what takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic
counts and observe traffic flows in a
department store.
 Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
– the AC Nielsen audimeter
– turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving
a building.
– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
– Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

– eye-tracking monitors
– pupilometers
– psychogalvanometers
– voice pitch analyzers
– devices measuring response latency
 Observation Methods
Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical

records or performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical
objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing
research suppliers were discussed in the context of
syndicated data in Chapter 4
 Observation Methods
Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative

description of the manifest content of a
communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space
and time measures (length or duration of the
message), or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken down
according to prescribed rules.
 Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

• The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement

rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
• The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
• The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to
estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
• The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the
affluence of customers.
• The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
• Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing
and usage behavior by using cookies.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods
Table 6.3

Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
in natural setting
Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium
General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications
 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods for
Table 6.4International Marketing Research
Criteria Telephone Personal Mail Electronic
High sample control + + - -
Difficulty in locating + - + +
respondents at home
Inaccessibility of homes + - + +
Unavailability of a large + - + +
pool of trained interviewers
Large population in rural areas - + - -
Unavailability of maps + - + +
Unavailability of current - + - +
telephone directory
Unavailability of mailing lists + + - +
Low penetration of telephones - + + -
Lack of an efficient postal system + + - +
Low level of literacy - + - -
Face-to-face communication culture - + - -
Poor access to computers & Internet ? + ? -
Note: A (+) denotes an advantage, and a (–) denotes a disadvantage.