Computer Organization

and
Architecture
Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic, Safwat
Zaky,
Computer Organization, 5th
Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2002.

1
 Module-1
Basic Structure of Computers

2
Computer Types
A digital computer, or simply, a computer is
a fast electronic calculating machine
that accepts digitized input
information, processes it according to a
list of internally stored instructions,
and produces the resulting output
information.
 The list of instructions is called a

computer program, and the internal

storage is called computer memory. 3
Computer Types..
 Many types of computers exist that
differ widely in size, cost,
computational power, and intended
use.
 Four general categories
 Personal Computers
 Servers and Enterprise Systems
 Supercomputers and Grid Computers
 Embedded Computers
4
Computer Types..
 Personal computers have achieved
widespread use in homes,
educational institutions, and
business and engineering office
settings, primarily for dedicated
individual use.
 They support a variety of applications

such as general computation,

document preparation, computer-
aided design, audiovisual 5

entertainment, interpersonal
Computer Types..
 A number of classifications are used for personal
computers.
 Desktop computers serve general needs and fit
within a typical personal workspace.
 Workstation computers offer higher computational
capacity and more powerful graphical display
capabilities for engineering and scientific work.
 Portable and Notebook computers provide the basic
features of a personal computer in a smaller
lightweight package.
 They can operate on batteries to provide mobility.
6
7
Computer Types..
 Servers and Enterprise systems are large
computers that are meant to be shared
by a potentially large number of users
who access them from some form of
personal computer over a public or
private network.
 Such computers may host large
databases and provide information
processing for a government agency
or a commercial organization. 8
9
Computer Types..
 Supercomputers and Grid computers
normally offer the highest
performance.
 They are the most expensive and
physically the largest category of
computers.
are used for the highly
 Supercomputers

demanding computations needed in

weather forecasting, engineering
design and simulation, and scientific 1

work. 0
1
1
Computer Types..
 Grid computers provide a more cost-
effective alternative.
 They combine a large number of personal
computers and disk storage units in a
physically distributed high-speed network,
called a grid, which is managed as a
coordinated computing resource.
 By evenly distributing the computational
workload across the grid, it is possible to
achieve high performance on large
applications ranging from numerical
computation to information searching.
12
13
Computer Types..
 Embedded computers are integrated into
a larger device or system in order to
automatically monitor and control a
physical process or environment.
 They are used for a specific purpose

rather than for general processing

tasks.
 Typical applications include industrial

and home automation, appliances,

telecommunication products and 14
15
Computer Types..
 There is an emerging trend in access to
computing facilities, known as cloud
computing.
 Personal computer users access widely

distributed computing and storage server

resources for individual, independent,
computing needs.
 The Internet provides the
necessary communication
facility.
1
Cloud hardware and software service
 use 6
17
Functional Units

18
Functional Units
Arithmetic
Input and
logic

Memory

Output Control

I/O Processor

Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

19
Functional Units..
 A computer consists of five functionally
independent main parts: input, memory,
arithmetic and logic, output, and control units.
 The input unit accepts coded information from
human operators using devices such as
keyboards, or from other computers over
digital communication lines.
 The information received is stored in the
computer’s memory, either for later use or
to be processed immediately by the
arithmetic and logic unit.
 The processing steps are specified by a program 2
that is also stored in the memory. 0
Functional Units..
 Finally, the results are sent back to the
outside world through the output unit.
 All of these actions are coordinated

by the control unit.

 The arithmetic and logic circuits, in

conjunction with the main control

circuits, are referred to as the processor.
 Input and output equipment is often

collectively referred to as the input-output

(I/O) unit.
21
Information handled by a
computer
 Instructi

on
 Data

22
Information handled by a
computer..
 Instructions,or machine instructions,
are explicit commands that
 Govern the transfer of information within a
computer as well as between the computer
and its I/O devices
 Specify the arithmetic and logic
operations to be performed

23
Information handled by a
computer..
A program is a list of instructions
which performs a task.
 Programs are stored in the memory.
 The processor fetches the program
instructions from the memory, one after
another, and performs the desired
operations.
 The computer is controlled by the stored
program, except for possible external
interruption by an operator or by I/O
devices connected to it. 24
Information handled by a
computer..
 Dataare numbers and characters
that are used as operands by the
instructions.
 Data are also stored in the memory.

25
Information handled by a
computer..
 The information handled by a
computer must be encoded in a
suitable format.
 Most present-day hardware employs

digital circuits that have only two

stable states, ON and OFF.
 Each instruction, number, or character

is encoded as a string of binary digits

called bits, each having one of two
possible values, 0 or 1. 26
Input Unit
 Computers accept coded information
through input units.
 The most common input device is the

keyboard.
 Whenever a key is pressed, the
corresponding letter or digit is automatically
translated into its corresponding binary code
and transmitted to the processor.
 Other kinds of input devices – mouse,
joystick, trackball, touchpad,
microphone, camera. 27
Memory Unit
 The function of the memory unit is to
store programs and data.
 There are two classes of storage
 Primary
 Secondary

28
Memory Unit..
 Primary memory, also called main memory, is a fast
memory that operates at electronic speeds.
 Programs must be stored in this memory while they
are being executed.
 It consists of a large number of semiconductor
storage
cells, each capable of storing one bit of
information.
 They are handled in groups of fixed size called words.
 One word can be stored or retrieved in one basic
operation.
 The number of bits in each word is referred to as the
word length 29
of the computer, typically 16, 32, or 64 bits.
Memory Unit..
 To provide easy access to any word in
the memory, a distinct address is
associated with each word location.
 Addresses are consecutive numbers,

starting from 0, that identify

successive locations.
A particular word is accessed by
specifying its address and issuing a
control command to the memory that
starts the storage or retrieval process.
3
0
Memory Unit..
 Memory in which any location can be
accessed in a short and fixed amount
of time after specifying its address is
called a random-access memory (RAM).
 The time required to access one

word is called the memory access

time.
 It typically ranges from a few nanoseconds
(ns) to about 100 ns for modern RAM units.
31
Memory Unit..
 The memory is normally
implemented as a memory hierarchy
of three or four levels of RAM units
with different speeds and sizes.
 The small, fast RAM units are called

cache.
 Tightly coupled with the processor
 Contained on the same chip to
achieve high performance
 Largest and slowest unit is referred 32
Memory Unit..
 Although primary memory is
essential, it tends to be expensive
and does not retain information
when power is turned off.

33
Memory Unit..
 Secondary storage is used when large
amounts of data and many programs
have to be stored.
 Particularly for information that is

accessed in frequently.
 Access times for secondary
storage are longer than for
primary memory.
 Examples - magnetic disks, optical

disks 34
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU)
 Most computer operations are
executed in ALU of the processor.
 Any arithmetic or logic operation, such

as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, or comparison
of numbers, is initiated by bringing
the required operands into the
processor, where the operation is
performed by the ALU.
35
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU)..
 For example, if two numbers located in the
memory are to be added, they are brought into
the processor, and the addition is carried out by
the ALU.
 The sum may then be stored in the memory or retained
in the
processor for immediate use.
 When operands are brought into the processor,
they are stored in high-speed storage elements
called registers.
 Each register can store one word of data.
 Access times to registers are even shorter than access
times to the cache unit on the processor chip. 36
Output Unit
 It sends processed results to the outside world.
 Example – printer
 Most printers employ either photocopying techniques,
as in laser printers, or ink jet streams. Such printers
may generate output at speeds of 20 or more pages
per minute.
 Some units, such as graphic displays, provide
both an output function, showing text and
graphics, and an input function, through
touchscreen capability.
 The dual role of such units is the reason for using
the single name input/output (I/O) unit in many
cases. 37
Control Unit
 The memory, arithmetic and logic,
and I/O units store and process
information and perform input and
output operations.
 The control unit coordinates the
operation of different units in the
computer.
 The control unit is effectively the nerve

center that sends control signals to

other units and senses their states. 38
Control Unit..
 I/O transfers, consisting of input and
output operations, are controlled by
instructions of I/O programs.
 Control circuits are responsible for

generating the timing signals that govern

the transfers and determine when a
given action is to take place.
 Data transfers between the processor

and the memory are also managed by

the
unitcontrol
through timing 3
9
Control Unit..
 Much of the control circuitry is
physically distributed throughout
the computer.
 A large set of control lines (wires)

carries the signals used for timing and

synchronization of events in all units.

4
0
Summary
The operation of a computer can be summarized as
follows:
 The computer accepts information in the form of

programs and data through an input unit and

stores it in the memory.
 Information stored in the memory is fetched

under program control into an arithmetic and

logic unit, where it is processed.
 Processed information leaves the computer

through an output unit.

 All activities in the computer are directed by the

control
uni 4
1
t.
Basic Operational
Concepts

42
Review
 The activity in a computer is
governed by instructions.
 To perform a given task, an appropriate

program consisting of a list of instructions

is stored in the memory.
 Individual instructions are brought from

the memory into the processor, which

executes the specified operations.
 Data to be used as instruction operands

are also stored in the memory.

43
A Typical Instruction
Add LOCA, R0
 Add the operand at memory location LOCA
to the operand in a register R0 in the
processor.
 Place the sum into register R0.
 The original contents of LOCA are
preserved.
 The original contents of R0 are
overwritten.
 Several steps
 Instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor 44

 Operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the

Separate Memory Access
and ALU Operation
 Add LOCA, R0 combines a memory
access operation with an ALU
operation.
 In most modern computers,
these two types of operations
are performed by separate
instructions for improving
performance
45
Separate Memory Access
and ALU Operation..
Load

LOCA, R1 Add

R1, R0
 The first instruction transfers the

contents of memory location LOCA

into register R1.
 The second instruction adds the contents

of register R1 and R0 and places the sum

46
Connection Between the
Processor and the Memory
Memory

MAR MDR
Control

PC R0

R1
Processor
IR

ALU
R
n- 1

n general purpose
registers

4
Figure 1.2. Connections between the processor and the memory. 7
Registers
 Instruction register (IR)
 Hold the instruction that is currently being executed
 Program counter (PC)
 Keeps track of the execution of a program
 It contains the address of the next instruction to be
fetched and executed
 General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)
 Memory address register (MAR)
 Holds the address of the memory location to be
accessed
 Memory data register (MDR)
 Contains the data to be written into or read out of the 48
addressed
Typical Operating Steps
 Programs reside in the memory through
input devices
 PC is set to point to the first instruction
 The contents of PC are transferred to

MAR
 A Read control signal is sent to the

memory
 The first instruction is read out and
loaded into MDR
 The contents of MDR are transferred
49

to IR
Typical Operating Steps..
 Get operands for ALU
 General-purpose register
 Memory (address to MAR – Read – MDR to
ALU)
 Perform operation in ALU
 Store the result back
 To general-purpose register
 To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR –
Write)
 Duringthe execution, PC is
incremented to the next
5
0
Typical Operating Steps..
 In addition to transferring data
between the memory and the
processor, the computer accepts
data from input devices and sends
data to output devices.
 Thus, some machine instructions

are provided for the purpose of

handling I/O transfers.

5
1
Interrupt
 Normal execution of programs may be
preempted if
some device requires urgent servicing.
 The device raises an interrupt signal.
 An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for
service by the processor.
 The processor provides the requested
service by executing an appropriate
Interrupt-service routine.
 May alter the internal state of the processor
 Its state must be saved before servicing the
interrupt
5
 The contents
so that the programofmayPC, general-purpose
continue from where it was 2
Example
List the steps needed to execute the
machine instruction
Add LOCA,R0
in terms of transfers between the
components shown in Figure 1.2 and
some simple control commands.
Assume that the instruction itself is
stored in the memory at location
INSTR and that this address is initially
in register PC. 53
Example
 Transfer the contents of register PC to
register MAR
 Issue a Read command to memory, and

then wait until it has transferred the

requested word into register MDR
 Transfer the instruction from MDR into

IR and decode it
 Transfer the address LOCA from IR to

MAR
 Issue a Read command and wait until
54

MDR is loaded
Example
 Transfer contents of MDR to the ALU
 Transfer contents of R0 to the ALU

 Perform addition of the two operands in

the ALU and transfer result into R0

 Transfer contents of PC to ALU

 Add 1 to operand in ALU and

transfer incremented address to

PC

55
Example
List the steps needed to execute the
machine instruction
Add R1,R2,R3
in terms of transfers between the
components shown in Figure 1.2 and
some simple control commands.
Assume that the instruction itself is
stored in the memory at location
INSTR and that this address is initially
in register PC. 56
Example
 Transfer the contents of register PC to
register MAR
 Issue a Read command to memory, and

then wait until it has transferred the

requested word into register MDR
 Transfer the instruction from MDR into

IR and decode it
 Transfer contents of R1 and R2 to the
ALU
 Perform addition of two operands in 5
7

the ALU and transfer answer into R3

Example
 Transfer contents of PC to ALU
 Add 1 to operand in ALU and

transfer incremented address to

PC

58
Bus Structures
 There are many ways to connect
different parts inside a computer
together.
 When a word of data is transferred

between units, all its bits are

transferred in parallel, that is, the bits
are transferred simultaneously over
many wires, or lines, one bit per line
 A group of lines that serves as a

connecting path for several devices is 59

Bus Structures..
 Single-

bus

6
0
Bus Structures..
 The main virtue of the single-bus
structure is its low cost and its
flexibility for attaching peripheral
devices.
 Systems that contain multiple buses

achieve more concurrency in

operations
 Allow two or more transfers to be carried
out at the same time
 This leads to better performance but 6

at an increased cost. 1
Speed Issue
 Different devices have different transfer/operating
speed.
 Some electromechanical devices, such as
keyboards and printers, are relatively slow
 Magnetic or optical disks are considerably faster
 Memory and processor units operate at electronic
speeds -
fastest
 If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest
device connected to it, the efficiency will be
very low.
 How to solve this?
 I/O
A common approach – use buffer registers 6
2
 devices.
Hold the information during transfers
Software
 System software is a collection of
programs that are executed as
needed to perform functions:
 Receiving and interpreting user
commands
 Entering and editing application programs
and storing them as files in secondary
storage devices
 Managing the storage and retrieval of
files in secondary storage devices
 Running
data standard
supplied by theapplication programs6
3
Software..
 Controlling I/O units to receive input
information and produce output results
 Translating programs from source form
prepared by the user into object form
consisting of machine instructions
 Linking and running user-written
application programs with existing
standard library routines, such as
numerical computation packages

64
Software..
 System software is responsible for the
coordination of all
activities in a computing system.
 Application programs are usually written in a
high-level programming language, such as C,
C++, Java, or Fortran
 Independent of the particular computer used to
execute the program.
 A programmer using a high-level language
need not
know the details of machine program
instructions.
65
 Compiler translates the high-level language
Software..
 Text editor - used for entering and
editing application programs.
 File - a sequence of alphanumeric
characters or binary data that is stored in
memory or in secondary storage.
 Operating system - a large program, or

actually a collection of routines, that is

used to control the sharing of and
interaction among various computer
units as they execute application
programs. 66
Software..
 Consider a system with one processor, one
disk, and one printer.
 Assume that the application program has

been compiled from a high-level

language form into a machine language
form and stored on the disk.

67
68
Performance

69
Performance
 The most important measure of the
performance a computer is how quickly
it can execute programs.
 Three factors affect performance:
 Hardware design
 Instruction set
 Compiler

7
0
Performance..


71
Performance..
 To
discuss the performance of the
processor, we should consider only the
periods during which the processor is
active.
 These are the periods labelled Program
and OS routines in Figure 1.4.
 Sum of these periods is referred as the
processor time needed to execute the
program.

72
Performance..
 Processor time to execute a program depends on the
hardware
involved in the execution of individual machine
instructions.
Main Cache
memory memory Processor

Bus

Figure 1.5. The processor cache.

73
Performance..
 At the start of execution, all program instructions
and the
required data are stored in the main memory.
 As execution proceeds, instructions are fetched
one by one over the bus into the processor,
and a copy is placed in the cache.
 When the execution of an instruction calls for
data located in the main memory, the data are
fetched and a copy is placed in the cache.
 Later, if the same instruction or data item is
needed a second time, it is read directly from
the cache. 74
Performance..
 The processor and a relatively small cache
memory can be fabricated on a single
integrated circuit chip.
 A program will be executed faster if the

movement of instructions and data

between the main memory and the
processor is minimized, which is
achieved by using the cache.

75
Processor Clock
 Processor circuits are controlled by a
timing signal called a clock.
 The clock defines regular time

intervals, called clock cycles.

 The execution of each instruction is

divided into several steps, each of

which completes in one clock cycle.
 Length of one clock cycle is denoted

as P
 Hertz – cycles per second 76
Processor Clock..

77
Basic Performance Equation
 T – processor time required to execute a program that
has been
prepared in high-level language
 N – number of actual machine language instructions
needed to complete the execution
 S – average number of basic steps needed to execute
one
machine instruction. Each step completes in one clock
cycle
 R – clock rate
 Note: these are not independent to each other

NS
T
R 78
Basic Performance Equation
 Lesser the value of T, higher the
performance.
 Reducing T means reducing N and S,
and increasing R
 The value of N is reduced if the source
program is compiled into fewer machine
instructions.
 The value of S is reduced if instructions
have a smaller number of basic steps to
perform or if the execution of
instructions is overlapped.
 Using a higher-frequency clock increases
the value or R, which means that the 79