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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory
Dan Garcia UC Berkeley

The World

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Kasparov

Welcome!
Introduction Topic motivation, goals Talk overview
Combinatorial game theory basics w/examples Computational game theory Analysis of some simple games Research highlights
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 2/39

Game Theory: Economic or Combinatorial?

Economic
von Neumann and Morgensterns 1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Matrix games Prisoners dilemma Incomplete info, simultaneous moves Goal: Maximize payoff

Combinatorial
Sprague and Grundys 1939 Mathematics and Games Board (table) games Nim, Domineering Complete info, alternating moves Goal: Last move
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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Why study games?

Systems design
Decomposition into parts with limited interactions

Complexity Theory Management

Determine area to focus energy / resources

Artificial Intelligence testing grounds People want to understand the things that people like to do, and people like to play games Berlekamp & Wolfe
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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Combinatorial Game Theory History

Early Play
Egyptian wall painting of Senat (c. 3000 BC) Knuth Surreal Numbers [1974] Conway On Numbers and Games [1976] Prof. Elwyn Berlekamp (UCB), Conway, & Guy Winning Ways [1982]

Theory
C. L. Boutons analysis of Nim [1902] Sprague [1936] and Grundy [1939] Impartial games and Nim

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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What is a combinatorial game?

Two players (Left & Right) move alternately No chance, such as dice or shuffled cards Both players have perfect information
No hidden information, as in Stratego & Magic

The game is finite it must eventually end There are no draws or ties Normal Play: Last to move wins!
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 6/39

What games are out, what are in?

Out
All card games All dice games

In
Nim, Domineering, Dots-and-Boxes, Go, etc.

In, but not normal play

Chess, Checkers, Othello, Tic-Tac-Toe, etc.
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 7/39

Combinatorial Game Theory The Big Picture

Whose turn is not part of the game SUMS of games
You play games G1 + G2 + G3 + You decide which game is most important You want the last move (in normal play) Analogy: Eating with a friend, want the last bite

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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Classification of Games
Impartial
Same moves available to each player Example: Nim

Partisan
The two players have different options Example: Domineering

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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Nim : The Impartial Game pt. I

Rules:
Several heaps of beans On your turn, select a heap, and remove any positive number of beans from it, maybe all 2 3 5 7

Goal
Take the last bean

Example w/4 piles: (2,3,5,7)

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 10/39

Nim: The Impartial Game pt. II

Dan plays room in (2,3,5,7) Nim Pair up, play (2,3,5,7)
Query:
First player win or lose? Perfect strategy?

2 3 5 7

Feedback, theories?

Every impartial game is equivalent to a (bogus) Nim heap

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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Nim: The Impartial Game pt. III

Winning or losing?
Binary rep. of heaps Nim Sum == XOR Zero == Losing, 2nd P win 01 10 11 101 111 11 00
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1 2 3 5 7

Winning move?
Find MSB in Nim Sum Find heap w/1 in that place Invert all heaps bits from sum to make sum zero

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Domineering: A partisan game

Rules (on your turn):
Place a domino on the board Left places them North-South Right places them East-West

Goal
Left (bLue) Right (Red) Place the last domino

Example game Query: Who wins here?

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 13/39

Domineering: A partisan game

Key concepts
+ = + + Left (bLue) Right (Red) + + By moving correctly, you guarantee yourself future moves. For many positions, you want to move, since you can steal moves. This is a hot game. This game decomposes into noninteracting parts, which we separately analyze and bring results together.
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What do we want to know about a particular game?

What is the value of the game?
Who is ahead and by how much? How big is the next move? Does it matter who goes first?

What is a winning / drawing strategy?

To know a games value and winning strategy is to have solved the game Can we easily summarize strategy?
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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics I - Game definition

A game, G, between two players, Left and Right, is defined as a pair of sets of games:
G = {GL | GR } GL is the typical Left option (i.e., a position Left can move to), similarly for Right. GL need not have a unique value Thus if G = {a, b, c, | d, e, f, }, GL means a or b or c or and GR means d or e or f or ...
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 16/39

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics II - Examples: 0

The simplest game, the Endgame, born day 0
Neither player has a move, the game is over { | } = { | }, we denote by 0 (a number!) Example of P, previous/second-player win, losing Examples from games weve seen:
Nim Domineering Game Tree

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics II - Examples: *

The next simplest game, * (Star), born day 1
First player to move wins { 0 | 0 } = *, this game is not a number, its fuzzy! Example of N, a next/first-player win, winning Examples from games weve seen:
Nim 1
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Domineering

Game Tree

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics II - Examples: 1

Another simple game, 1, born day 1
Left wins no matter who starts { 0 | } = 1, this game is a number Called a Left win. Partisan games only. Examples from games weve seen:
Nim Domineering Game Tree

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics II - Examples: 1

Similarly, a game, 1, born day 1
Right wins no matter who starts { | 0 } = 1, this game is a number. Called a Right win. Partisan games only. Examples from games weve seen:
Nim Domineering Game Tree

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics II - Examples

Calculate value for Domineering game G:
G= ={ ={ | } 1 | 1 } ={1 , = 1 this is a fuzzy hot value, confused with 0. 1st player wins. Left Right ={0 | 1} = { .5 } this is a cold fractional value. Left wins regardless who starts.
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 21/39

Calculate value for Domineering game G:

G= ={ , | 0 | 1 } }

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics III - Outcome classes

With normal play, every game belongs to one of four outcome classes (compared to 0):
Zero (=) Negative (<) Positive (>) Fuzzy (||), incomparable, confused Left starts
and R has winning strategy

Right starts
and L has winning strategy ZERO G=0 2nd wins POSITIVE G>0 L wins and R has winning strategy NEGATIVE G<0 R wins FUZZY G || 0 1st wins
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and L has winning strategy

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

Negative of a game: definition

1 2 G

G = { GR | GL} Similar to switching places with your opponent Impartial games are their own neg., so G = G Examples from games weve seen:
Nim 1 2 G G
Rotate 90 Flip

Domineering

Game Tree

G
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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

Sums of games: definition
G + H = {GL + H, G + HL | GR + H, G + HR} The player whose turn it is selects one component and makes a move in it. Examples from games weve seen:
G + H + = { GL + H, G+H1L , G+H2L | GR + H, G+HR } ={ , + , + | , + }

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

G+0=G
The Endgame doesnt change a games value

G + ( G) = 0
= 0 means is a zero game, 2nd player can win Examples: 1 + (1) = 0 and * + * = 0
Nim 1 * 1 * Domineering 1 * 1 1 * 0
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Game Tree 1

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

G=H
If the game G + (H) = 0, i.e., a 2nd player win Examples from games weve seen:
Is G = H ? Play G + (H) and see if 2nd player win Left Yes! Right
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Is G = H ? Play G + (H) and see if 2nd player win No...

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

G H (Games form a partially ordered set!)
If Left can win the sum G + (H) going 2nd Examples from games weve seen:
Is G H ? Play G + (H) and see if Left wins going 2nd Left Yes! Right
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Is G H ? Play G + (H) and see if Left wins going 2nd No...

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Negatives & Sums

G || H (G is incomparable with H)
If G + (H) is || with 0, i.e., a 1st player win Examples from games weve seen:
Is G || H ? Play G + (H) and see if 1st player win Left No... Right
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Is G || H ? Play G + (H) and see if 1st player win YES!

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Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics IV - Values of games

What is the value of a fuzzy game?
Its neither > 0, < 0 nor = 0, but confused with 0 Its place on the number scale is indeterminate Often represented as a cloud

Lets tie the theory all together!

-2

-1.5

-1

-.5

.5

1.5

2
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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Combinatorial Game Theory The Basics V - Final thoughts

Theres much more!
More values
Up, Down, Tiny, etc.

Normal form games

Last to move wins, no ties Whose turn not in game Rich mathematics Key: Sums of games Many (most?) games are not normal form!
What do we do then?

Simplicity, Mex rule Dominating options Reversible moves Number avoidance Temperatures

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Computational Game Theory (for non-normal play games)

Large games
Can theorize strategies, build AI systems to play Can study endgames, smaller version of original
Examples: Quick Chess, 9x9 Go, 6x6 Checkers, etc.

Small-to-medium games
Can have computer solve and teach us strategy GAMESMAN does exactly this
A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 31/39

Computational Game Theory

Simplify games / value
Store turn in position Each position is (for player whose turn it is)
Winning ( losing child) Losing (All children winning) Tieing (! losing child, but  tieing child) Drawing (cant force a win or be forced to lose)

W ... WWW T ... WWW T L

L ... WWW D D ... WWW

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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

GAMESMAN Analysis: TacTix, or 2-D Nim

Rules (on your turn):
Take as many pieces as you want from any contiguous row / column

Goal
Take the last piece

Query
Column = Nim heap? Zero shapes
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GAMESMAN Analysis: Tic-Tac-Toe

Rules (on your turn):
Place your X or O in an empty slot

Goal
Get 3-in-a-row first in any row/column/diag.

Misre is tricky

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GAMESMAN Tic-Tac-Toe Visualization

Visualization of values Example with Misre
Outer rim is position Next levels are values of moves to that position Recursive image Lose Legend: Tie Win
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Exciting Game Theory Research at Berkeley

Combinatorial Game Theory Workshop
MSRI July 24-28th, 2000 1994 Workshop book: Games of No Chance

Prof. Elwyn Berlekamp

Dots & Boxes, Go endgames Economists View of Combinatorial Games

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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Exciting Game Theory Research Chess

Kasparov vs.
World, Deep Blue II

Endgames, tablebases
Stiller, Nalimov Combinatorial GT applied
Values found [Elkies, 1996]

SETI@Home parallel power to build database? Historical analysis...

White to move, wins in move 243 with

Rd7xNe7
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A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

Exciting Game Theory Research Solving games

4x4x4 Tic-Tac-Toe [Patashnik, 1980] Connect-4 [Allen, 1989; Allis, 1988] Go-Moku [Allis et al., 1993] Nine Mens Morris [Gasser, 1996]
One of oldest games boards found c. 1400 BC

Checkers almost solved [Schaeffer, 1996]

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory 38/39

Summary
Combinatorial game theory, learned games Computational game theory, GAMESMAN Reviewed research highlights

A Brief Introduction to Game Theory

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