1.

2 INDUCTION &
REASONING

Prepared By
Ashok Gurung

October 13, 2024 1

 MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
 Any of the mathematical statement must be
supported by arguments that make it correct.
 For this we need to know different techniques and
rules that can be applied in the mathematical
statements such that we can prove the
correctness of the given mathematical statement.
 This method of understanding the correctness by
sequence of statements forming an argument is a
proof of the statement.
 A theorem is a mathematical statement that can
be shown to be true. Well founded proof is the
steps of mathematical statements that present an
argument that makes the theorem true.

October 13, 2024 2

MATHEMATICAL REASONING CONTD.
 By proving some mathematical problem we
mean that we solve that problem. For this
purpose valid steps are required such that
as mentioned above those steps aid on
solving the problems.
 Problem solving or proving is not just a
science so there is no hard and fast rule that
is applied in problem solving.
 However, there are some guiding methods
that help us to solve different kinds of
problems. Here still we must note that the
problem solving is not just a science, so
hard work and art is needed.
October 13, 2024 3
 RULES OF INFERENCE
Rules of Tautology Name
Inference
p (p  (p  q))  q Modus ponens
pq Or
q Law of Detachment
¬q (¬q  (p  q))  ¬p Modus tollens
pq Or
¬p Transitive Rule
pq ((p  q)  (q  r)) (p  r) Hypothetical
qr syllogism
p  r
pq ((pq)  (¬p))  q Disjunctive
¬p syllogism
q
p p  (pq) Addition
pq
pq (pq)  p Simplification
p
October 13, 2024 4
 RULES OF INFERENCE
Rules of Tautology Name
Inference
p ((p)  (q))  pq Conjunction
q
pq
pq ((p q)  (¬p  r))  (q  Resolution
¬pr r)
qr
(pq)(rs) [((pq)(rs) Constructive
pr ) (pr)]  (q  s) Dilemma
q  s
(pq)(rs) [((pq)(rs))(¬p¬s Distructive
¬p¬s )](¬p¬r) Dilemma
¬p¬r

October 13, 2024 5

 EXAMPLE
 State which rule of inference is the basis of
the following argument: “Ram is hard
working. If Ram is hard working, then he is
intelligent.”
 Let p be the proposition “Ram is hard
working” and q the proposition “Ram is
intelligent.” Then this argument is of the
form
p
pq
q
 This is an argument that uses the Modus
ponens.
October 13, 2024 6
 EXAMPLE
 State which rule of inference is the basis
of the following argument: “It is below
freezing now. Therefore, it is either below
freezing or raining now.”
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is
below freezing now” and q the proposition
“It is raining now.” Then this argument is
of the form
p
pq
This is an argument that uses the addition
rule.
October 13, 2024 7
 EXAMPLE
 State which rule of inference is the basis of
the following argument: “It is below
freezing and raining now. Therefore, it is
below freezing now.”
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is
below freezing now,” and let q be the
proposition “It is raining now.” This
argument is of the form
pq
p
This argument uses the simplification rule.

October 13, 2024 8

 EXAMPLE
 State which rule of inference is used in the
argument: If it rains today, then we will not have a
barbecue today. If we do not have a barbecue
today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow.
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbecue tomorrow.
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is raining
today,” let q be the proposition “We will not have a
barbecue today,” and let r be the proposition “We
will have a barbecue tomorrow.” Then this
argument is of the form
pq
qr
p  r
 Hence, this argument is a hypothetical syllogism.
October 13, 2024 9
 VALID ARGUMENTS
 An argument is called valid if all
hypotheses are true and the conclusion
is also true.
 We can conclude that the implication (p1
 p2  …  pn)  q is tautology.
 If all the propositions in the valid
argument are true then the conclusion is
true.
 Sometime valid argument can lead to
incorrect conclusion if one or more of the
false premises are used in the argument.
October 13, 2024 10
USING RULES OF INFERENCES
TO BUILD ARGUMENTS
 When there are many premises, several rules of inference
are often needed to show that an argument is valid. This is
illustrated by Examples given below, where the steps of
arguments are displayed on separate lines, with the reason
for each step explicitly stated. These examples also show
how arguments in English can be analyzed using rules of
inference.
 Example: Show that the premises “It is not sunny this
afternoon and it is colder than yesterday,” “We will go
swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not go swimming,
then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If we take a canoe trip,
then we will be home by sunset” lead to the conclusion “We
will be home by sunset.”
 Let p be the proposition “It is sunny this afternoon,” q be
the proposition “It is colder than yesterday,” r be the
proposition “We will go swimming”, s be the proposition
“We will take a canoe trip”, and t be the proposition “We
will be home by sunset.”
October 13, 2024 11
 EXAMPLE
 Then the premises become ¬p  q, r  p,¬r  s, and s
 t. The conclusion is simply t .
 We need to give a valid argument with premises ¬p 
q, r  p,¬r  s, and s  t and conclusion t .
 Step Reason
1. ¬p  q Premise
2. ¬p Simplification using (1)
3. r  p Premise
4. ¬r Modus tollens using
(2) and (3)
5. ¬r  s Premise
6. s Modus ponens using
(4) and (5)
7. s  t Premise
8. t Modus ponens using
6) and (7)
October 13, 2024 12
 EXAMPLE
 Show that the premises “If you send me an e-mail
message, then I will finish writing the program,”
“If you do not send me an e-mail message, then I
will go to sleep early,” and “If I go to sleep early,
then I will wake up feeling refreshed” lead to the
conclusion “If I do not finish writing the program,
then I will wake up feeling refreshed.”
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “You send me
an e-mail message”, q be the proposition “I will
finish writing the program”, r be the proposition “I
will go to sleep early”, and s be the proposition “I
will wake up feeling refreshed.” Then the
premises are p  q, ¬p  r, and r  s.
 The desired conclusion is ¬q  s. We need to give
a valid argument with premises p  q, ¬p  r,
and r  s and conclusion ¬q  s.
October 13, 2024 13
 EXAMPLE CONTD.
 Step Reason
1. p  q Premise
2. ¬q  ¬p Contrapositive of (1)
3. ¬p  r Premise
4. ¬q  r Hypothetical syllogism
using (2) and (3)
5. r  s Premise
6. ¬q  s Hypothetical syllogism
using (4) and (5)

October 13, 2024 14

 EXAMPLE
 Show that the following argument is valid. If
today is Tuesday, I have a test in Mathematics
or Economics. If my Economics Professor is
sick, I will not have a test in Economics. Today
is Tuesday and my Economics Professor is
sick. Therefore I have a test in Mathematics.
 Solution:
Let t be proposition “Today is Tuesday”, m be
the proposition “I have a test in
Mathematics”, e be the proposition “I have a
test in Economics” and s be the proposition
“My Economics Professor is sick”.

October 13, 2024 15

 EXAMPLE CONTD.
1. tme
2. s¬e
3. ts
m
4. t (From 3,Simplification)
5. s (From 3,Simplification)
6. m  e (From 4 & 1, Modus
Ponens)
7. ¬ e (From 5 & 2, Modus
Ponens)
8. m (From 6 & 7, Disjunctive
syllogism)

October 13, 2024 16

 EXAMPLE
 Construct an argument using rules of inference
to show that the hypotheses “If it does not rain
or if it is not foggy, then the sailing race will be
held and the life saving demonstration will go
on”, “If the sailing race is held, then the trophy
will be awarded” and “The trophy was not
awarded” imply the conclusion “It rained”.
 Solution:
Let p = “It rains”, q = “It is foggy”, r = “the
sailing race is held”, s = “Life saving
demonstration is done”, and t = “Trophy is
awarded”.
Then we have to show that the argument
[((¬p  ¬q)  (r  s))  (r  t)  ¬t]  p is valid.
October 13, 2024 17
 EXAMPLE CONTD.
1. (r  t) [Premise]
2. ¬t [Premise]
3. ¬ r [Modus Tollens from steps 1
& 2]
4. ((¬p  ¬ q)  (r  s)) [Premise]
5. ¬(¬ p  ¬ q)  (r  s) [Implication of Step 4]
6. (p  q)  (r  s) [De Morgan’s Law in Step 5]
7. p  (r  s) [Simplification using step 6]
8. p  r [Simplification using step 7]
9. r  p [Commutative law in step 8]
10. p [Disjunctive Syllogism from
9 & 3]
Hence argument is valid. With conclusion “It rained”.
October 13, 2024 18
 EXAMPLE
 For the set of premises “If I play hockey, then I am
sore the next day.” “I use the whirlpool if I am
sore.” “I did not use the whirlpool”. What relevant
conclusion can be drawn? Explain the rules of
inference used to draw the conclusion.
 Solution:
Let p = “I play hockey”, q = “ I am sore”, r = “I use
the whirlpool” Then the above premises are
a. p q
b. q  r
c. ¬r
Using hypothetical syllogism in premises a and b
we have p  r i.e. “if I play hockey, then I use
whirlpool”
Using the modus tollens in premise c and inferred
proposition p  r we conclude ¬p is true i.e. p is
false. p is false means “ I did not play hockey”.
October 13, 2024 19
 QUESTIONS
 Show that the following argument is
valid. If Mohan is a layer, then he is
ambitious. If Mohan is an early riser,
then he does not like idlies. If Mohan is
ambitious, then he is an early riser.
Then if Mohan is a lawyer, then he does
not likes idlies.
 Use rules of inference to show that the
hypotheses “Randy works hard,” “If
Randy works hard, then he is a dull
boy,” and “If Randy is a dull boy, then
he will not get the job” imply the
conclusion “Randy will not get the job.”

October 13, 2024 20

 QUESTIONS
 Find the argument form for the following
argument and determine whether it is valid. Can
we conclude that the conclusion is true if the
premises are true?
If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal.
Socrates is human.
Socrates is mortal.
 Find the argument form for the following
argument and determine whether it is valid. Can
we conclude that the conclusion is true if the
premises are true?
If George does not have eight legs, then he is not
a spider.
George is a spider.
 George has eight legs.
October 13, 2024 21
 QUESTIONS
What rule of inference is used in each of these
arguments?
a)Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is
either a mathematics major or a computer science
major.
b)Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science
major. Therefore, Jerry is a mathematics major.
c)If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the pool is closed.
d)If it snows today, the university will close. The
university is not closed today. Therefore, it did not
snow today.
e)If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If
I stay in the sun too long, then I will sunburn.
Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will sunburn.
October 13, 2024 22
 QUESTIONS
What rule of inference is used in each of these
arguments?
a. Kangaroos live in Australia and are marsupials.
Therefore, kangaroos are marsupials.
b. It is either hotter than 100 degrees today or the
pollution is dangerous. It is less than 100 degrees
outside today. Therefore, the pollution is dangerous.
c. Linda is an excellent swimmer. If Linda is an excellent
swimmer, then she can work as a lifeguard. Therefore,
Linda can work as a lifeguard.
d. Steve will work at a computer company this summer.
Therefore, this summer Steve will work at a computer
company or he will be a beach bum.
e. If I work all night on this homework, then I can answer
all the exercises. If I answer all the exercises, I will
understand the material. Therefore, if I work all night on
this homework, then I will understand the material.
October 13, 2024 23
 QUESTIONS
 For each of these collections of premises, what relevant
conclusion or conclusions can be drawn? Explain the rules
of inference used to obtain each conclusion from the
premises.
a. “If I take the day off, it either rains or snows.” “I took
Tuesday off or I took Thursday off.” “It was sunny on
Tuesday.” “It did not snow on Thursday.”
b) “If I eat spicy foods, then I have strange dreams.” “I have
strange dreams if there is thunder while I sleep.” “I did not
have strange dreams.”
c) “I am either clever or lucky.” “I am not lucky.” “If I am
lucky, then I will win the lottery.”
d) “Every computer science major has a personal computer.”
“Ralph does not have a personal computer.” “Ann has a
personal computer.”
e) “What is good for corporations is good for the United
States.” “What is good for the United States is good for
you.” “What is good for corporations is for you to buy lots
of stuff.”
f ) “All rodents gnaw their food.” “Mice are rodents.” “Rabbits
October 13, 2024 24
 QUESTIONS
 For each of these sets of premises, what relevant
conclusion or conclusions can be drawn? Explain the rules
of inference used to obtain each conclusion from the
premises.
a) “If I play hockey, then I am sore the next day.” “I
use the whirlpool if I am sore.” “I did not use the
whirlpool.”
b) “If Iwork, it is either sunny or partly sunny.”
“Iworked last Monday or Iworked last Friday.” “Itwas not
sunny on Tuesday.” “It was not partly sunny on Friday.”
c) “All insects have six legs.” “Dragonflies are
insects.” “Spiders do not have six legs.” “Spiders eat
dragonflies.”
d) “Every student has an Internet account.” “Homer
does not have an Internet account.” “Maggie has an
Internet account.”
e) “All foods that are healthy to eat do not taste
good.” “Tofu is healthy to eat.” “You only eat what tastes
good.” “You do not eat tofu.” “Cheeseburgers are not
October 13, 2024 25
healthy to eat.”
 FALLACIES
 Fallacies are arguments that are convincing but
not correct. So fallacies produce faulty
inferences.
 Fallacies resemble rules of inference, but are
based on contingencies rather than tautologies.
 Following are the fallacies that we may
encounter.
a. Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
b. Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
c. The non sequitur fallacy
d. Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning)

October 13, 2024 26

 FALLACY OF AFFIRMING THE CONCLUSION
 It has the form
q
pq
p i.e.(q  (p  q))  p. This is not a tautology hence it is a
fallacy.
 Is the following argument valid?

If you do every problem in this book, then you will learn discrete
mathematics. You learned discrete mathematics.
Therefore, you did every problem in this book.
Solution:
 Let p be the proposition “You did every problem in this book.” Let
q be the proposition “You learned discrete mathematics.” Then
this argument is of the form: if p  q and q, then p.
 This is an example of an incorrect argument using the fallacy of
affirming the conclusion.
 Indeed, it is possible for you to learn discrete mathematics in
someway other than by doing every problem in this book. (You
may learn discrete mathematics by reading, listening to lectures,
doing some, but not all, the problems in this book, and so on.)
October 13, 2024 27
FALLACY OF DENYING HYPOTHESIS
 This kind of fallacy has the form
p
pq
 q i.e. (p  (p  q))  q
This is not a tautology. Hence it is a fallacy.
 Example:
If today is Sunday, then it rains today.
Today is not Sunday. Therefore, it does not
rain today. This argument is not true since
even if today is not Sunday and it is raining
today then the first premise is true and
second premise is also true but not the
conclusion.
October 13, 2024 28
 THE NON SEQUITUR
FALLACY
 Non sequitur mean “does not follow”.
Generally all logical errors are the cases
of non sequitur fallacy. For e.g.
p
q , if p is true and q is false
then what happens?
 Example:
I am a teacher therefore Ram is a
doctor. (how is this valid? No, it is not
i.e. if Ram is not a doctor then what?).

October 13, 2024 29

 BEGGING THE QUESTION
(CIRCULAR REASONING)
 If the statement that is used for proof is
equivalent to the statement that is
being proved then it is called circular
reasoning.
 Example:
a. The square root of 2 is irrational since
it is
not rational.
b. Man is mortal because man dies.
c. Ram is black because he is black.

October 13, 2024 30

RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 Universal Instantiation is the rule of inference
used to conclude that P(c) is true, where c is a
particular member of the domain, given the
premise xP(x).
 In other words, If the proposition of the form xP(x)
is supposed to be true then the universal quantifier
can be dropped out to get P(c) is true for arbitrary c
in the universe of discourse. This can be written as
xP(x)
P (c), for all c
 Universal instantiation is used when we conclude
from the statement “All women are wise” that “Lisa
is wise,” where Lisa is a member of the domain of
all women.
 In universe of discourse of all man every man is
mortal implies ram is mortal where ram is a man.
October 13, 2024 31
RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 Universal generalization is the rule of inference that
states that xP(x) is true, given the premise that P(c) is
true for all elements c in the domain.
 Universal generalization is used when we show that xP(x)
is true by taking an arbitrary element c from the domain and
showing that P(c) is true.
 The element c that we select must be an arbitrary, and not a
specific, element of the domain. That is, when we assert
from xP(x) the existence of an element c in the domain, we
have no control over c and cannot make any other
assumptions about c other than it comes from the domain.
 Universal generalization is used implicitly in many proofs in
mathematics and is seldom mentioned explicitly. However,
the error of adding unwarranted assumptions about the
arbitrary element c when universal generalization is used is
all too common in incorrect reasoning.

October 13, 2024 32

RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 Existential instantiation is the rule
that allows us to conclude that there is
an element c in the domain for which
P(c) is true if we know that xP(x) is
true.
 We cannot select an arbitrary value of c
here, but rather it must be a c for which
P(c) is true.
 Usually we have no knowledge of what c
is, only that it exists. Because it exists,
we may give it a name (c) and continue
our argument.
October 13, 2024 33
RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 Existential generalization is the rule of
inference that is used to conclude that
xP(x) is true when a particular element
c with P(c) true is known.
 That is, if we know one element c in the
domain for which P(c) is true, then we
know that xP(x) is true.

October 13, 2024 34

RULES OF INFERENCE FOR
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS

Rule of Inference Name

xP(x) Universal instantiation
P(c)
P(c) for an arbitrary c Universal generalization
xP(x)
xP(x) Existential instantiation
P(c) for some element c
P(c) for some element c Existential generalization
xP(x)

October 13, 2024 35

 EXAMPLE
 Show that the premises “Everyone in this
discrete mathematics class has taken a
course in computer science” and “Marla is a
student in this class” imply the conclusion
“Marla has taken a course in computer
science.”
Solution:
 Let D(x) denote “x is in this discrete
mathematics class,” and let C(x) denote “x
has taken a course in computer science.”
 Then the premises are x(D(x)  C(x)) and
D(Marla).
 The conclusion is C(Marla).
October 13, 2024 36
 EXAMPLE

Step Reason
1. x(D(x)  C(x)) Premise
2. D(Marla)C(Marla) Universal
instantiation from
(1)
3. D(Marla) Premise
4. C(Marla) Modus ponens from
(3) and (2)

October 13, 2024 37

 EXAMPLE
 Show that the premises “A student in this
class has not read the book” and “Everyone
in this class passed the first exam” imply
the conclusion “Someone who passed the
first exam has not read the book”.
 Solution:
 Let C(x) be “x is in this class,” B(x) be “x
has read the book,” and P(x) be “x passed
the first exam.”
 The premises are x(C(x)¬B(x)) and
x(C(x)  P(x)).
 The conclusion is x(P(x)¬B(x)).
October 13, 2024 38
Step
EXAMPLE
Reason
1. x(C(x)¬B(x)) Premise
2. C(a)¬B(a) Existential
instantiation from (1)
3. C(a) Simplification from (2)
4. x(C(x)  P(x)) Premise
5. C(a)  P(a) Universal
instantiation from (4)
6. P(a) Modus ponens from
(3) and (5)
7. ¬B(a) Simplification from (2)
8. P(a)¬B(a) Conjunction from 6 &
7
9. x(P(x)¬B(x)) Existential
generalization from
(8)
October 13, 2024 39
 UNIVERSAL MODUS
PONENS
 Combination of rules of inferences for propositions
and quantified statements can be used.
 Universal instantiation and modus ponens are used
so often together, this combination of rules is called
Universal Modus Ponens.
 Universal Modus Ponens states that if x(P (x) 
Q(x)) is true, and if P(a) is true for a particular
element a in the domain of the universal quantifier,
then Q(a) must also be true.
 We can describe universal modus ponens as follows:
x(P (x)  Q(x))
P(a), where a is a particular element in the domain
Q(a)

October 13, 2024 40

 EXAMPLE
 Assume that “For all positive integers n, if n is
greater than 4, then n2 is less than 2n” is true.
Use universal modus ponens to show that
1002 < 2100.
Solution:
 Let P(n) denote “n > 4” and Q(n) denote “n 2 <
2n”.
 The statement “For all positive integers n, if n
is greater than 4, then n 2 is less than 2n” can
be represented by n(P (n)  Q(n)), where the
domain consists of all positive integers.
 We are assuming that n(P (n)  Q(n)) is true.
Note that P(100) is true because 100 > 4. It
follows by universal modus ponens that
Q(100) is true, namely that 100 2 < 2100.
October 13, 2024 41
 UNIVERSAL MODUS
TOLLENS
 It combines universal instantiation and
modus tollens and can be expressed in
the following way:
x(P (x)  Q(x))
¬Q(a), where a is a particular element
in the domain
 ¬P(a)

October 13, 2024 42

METHODS OF PROVING THEOREMS
 A proof is a valid argument that establishes
the truth of a mathematical statement.
 A proof can use the hypotheses of the
theorem, if any, axioms and previously proven
theorems.
 We move from formal proofs of theorems
toward more informal proofs.
 In formal proofs all steps are supplied and
rules for each step in the argument are given.
 The arguments we used to show that
statements involving propositions and
quantified statements are true were formal
proofs.
October 13, 2024 43
METHODS OF PROVING THEOREMS
 Formal proofs of useful theorems can be
extremely long and hard to follow.
 So, informal proofs can be used where more
than one rule of inference may be used in each
step, where steps may be skipped, where the
axioms being assumed and the rules of
inference used are not explicitly stated.
 Applications of methods of proving theorems
include verifying that computer programs are
correct, establishing that operating systems
are secure, making inferences in artificial
intelligence, showing that system specifications
are consistent and so on.

October 13, 2024 44

 SOME TERMINOLOGIES
 Theorem is a statement that can be shown to be
true. Theorems can also be referred to as facts or
results.
 Proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth
of a mathematical statement.
 Axioms(Postulates) are statements which we
assume to be true. Axioms may be stated using
primitive terms that do not require definition but all
other terms used in theorems and their proofs must
be defined.
 A less important theorem that is helpful in the proof
of other results is called lemma(lemmas or
lemmata).
 Corollary is a theorem that can be established
directly from a theorem that has been proved.
 Conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to
be a true statement, usually on the basis of some
partial evidence, a heuristic argument or the
October 13, 2024 45
 DIRECT PROOFS
 We prove the implication p  q, where we
start assuming that the hypothesis i.e. p is
true and using information already
available (rules of inferences, theorems,
etc.), if q becomes true, then the argument
becomes valid. This is direct proof.
 Definition: The integer n is even if there
exists an integer k such that n = 2k, and n
is odd if there exists an integer k such that
n = 2k + 1. (Note that every integer is
either even or odd, and no integer is both
even and odd.) Two integers have the same
parity when both are even or both are odd;
they have opposite parity when one is even
and the other is odd. October 13, 2024 46
 EXAMPLE
If a and b are odd integers, then a + b is
an even integer.
Proof:
 We know the fact that if a number is even
then we can represent it as 2k, where k is
an integer and if the number is odd then it
can be written as 2l + 1, where l is an
integer.
 Assume that a = 2k + 1 and b = 2l + 1, for
some integers k and m. then a + b = 2k +
1 + 2l + 1 = 2(k + l + 1), here (k + l + 1)
is an integer. Hence a + b is even integer.
October 13, 2024 47
 QUESTIONS
 Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n
is an odd integer, then n2 is odd.”
 Give a direct proof that if m and n are
both perfect squares, then nm is also a
perfect square. (An integer a is a perfect
square if there is an integer b such that
a = b 2)

October 13, 2024 48

 PROOF BY
CONTRAPOSITION
 An extremely useful type of indirect proof is
known as proof by contraposition.
 Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact
that the conditional statement p  q is
equivalent to its contrapositive, ¬q  ¬p.
 This means that the conditional statement p 
q can be proved by showing that its
contrapositive, ¬q  ¬p, is true.
 In a proof by contraposition of p  q, we take
¬q as a premise, and using axioms, definitions,
and previously proven theorems, together with
rules of inference, we show that ¬p must
follow.
 Examples given below show that proof by
contraposition can succeed when we cannot
easily find a direct proof.
October 13, 2024 49
 EXAMPLE
 Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then
n is odd.
 Solution:
 We first attempt a direct proof. To construct a direct proof, we first
assume that 3n + 2 is an odd integer. This means that 3n + 2 =
2k + 1 for some integer k.
 Can we use this fact to show that n is odd?
 We see that 3n + 1 = 2k, but there does not seem to be any
direct way to conclude that n is odd. Because our attempt at a
direct proof failed, we next try a proof by contraposition.
 The first step in a proof by contraposition is to assume that the
conclusion of the conditional statement “If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is
odd” is false; namely, assume that n is even.
 Then, by the definition of an even integer, n = 2k for some integer
k. Substituting 2k for n, we find that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1). This tells us that 3n + 2 is even (because it is a
multiple of 2), and therefore not odd.
 This is the negation of the premise of the theorem.
 Because the negation of the conclusion of the conditional
statement implies that the hypothesis is false, the original
conditional statement is true. Our proof by contraposition
October 13, 2024 50
 PROOF BY
CONTRADICTION
 Suppose we want to prove that a statement p is
true. Furthermore, suppose that we can find a
contradiction q such that ¬p  q is true. Because q
is false, but ¬p  q is true, we can conclude that
¬p is false, which means that p is true.
 How can we find a contradiction q that might help
us prove that p is true in this way?
 Because the statement r¬r is a contradiction
whenever r is a proposition, we can prove that p is
true if we can show that ¬p (r  ¬r) is true for
some proposition r.
 Proofs of this type are called proofs by
contradiction. Because a proof by contradiction
does not prove a result directly, it is another type
of indirect proof.
October 13, 2024 51
 EXAMPLE
 Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem “If 3n +
2 is odd, then n is odd.”
 Solution:
 Let p be “3n + 2 is odd” and q be “n is odd.” To
construct a proof by contradiction, assume that both
p and ¬q are true. That is, assume that 3n + 2 is
odd and that n is not odd.
 Because n is not odd, we know that it is even.
Because n is even, there is an integer k such that n
= 2k. This implies that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1). Because 3n + 2 is 2t , where t = 3k +
1, 3n + 2 is even.
 Note that the statement “3n + 2 is even” is
equivalent to the statement ¬p, because an integer
is even if and only if it is not odd. Because both p
and ¬p are true, we have a contradiction.
 This completes the proof by contradiction, proving
that if 3n + 2 is odd, then nOctober
is odd.13, 2024 52
 VACUOUS PROOF
 We can quickly prove that a conditional
statement p  q is true when we know that
p is false, because p  q must be true when
p is false.
 Consequently, if we can show that p is
false, then we have a proof, called a
vacuous proof, of the conditional
statement p  q.
 Vacuous proofs are often used to establish
special cases of theorems that state that a
conditional statement is true for all positive
integers [i.e., a theorem of the kind nP (n),
where P(n) is a propositional function].
October 13, 2024 53
 EXAMPLE
 Show that the proposition P(0) is true,
where P(n) is “If n > 1, then n2 > n” and
the domain consists of all integers.
 Solution:
Note that P(0) is “If 0 > 1, then 0 2 > 0.”
We can show P(0) using a vacuous proof.
Indeed, the hypothesis 0 > 1 is false.
This tells us that P(0) is automatically
true.

October 13, 2024 54

 TRIVIAL PROOFS
 We can also quickly prove a conditional
statement p  q if we know that the
conclusion q is true.
 By showing that q is true, it follows that p
 q must also be true.
 A proof of p  q that uses the fact that q
is true is called a trivial proof.
 Trivial proofs are often important when
special cases of theorems are proved and
in mathematical induction.

October 13, 2024 55

 EXAMPLE
 Let P(n) be “If a and b are positive integers
with a  b, then an  bn,” where the domain
consists of all nonnegative integers. Show
that P(0) is true.
 Solution:
 The proposition P(0) is “If a  b, then a0 
b0.” Because a0 = b0 = 1, the conclusion of
the conditional statement “If a  b, then a0
 b0” is true.
 Hence, this conditional statement, which is
P(0), is true.
 Note that the hypothesis, which is the
statement “a  b,” was not needed in this
proof.
October 13, 2024 56
 PROOF BY CASES
 The implication of the form (p1  p2  …  pn)
 q can be prove by using the tautology (p1 
p2  …  pn)  q  [(p1  q)  (p2  q)  … 
(pn  q)], i.e. we can show every implication
(pi  q) true for i =1, 2, …, n.
 Example:
If |x| > 3, then x2 > 9, where x is a real
number.
Proof:
Here, we have to consider two cases -x >3
and x > 3 since |x|, is an absolute value of x,
is x when x  0 and –x when x  0. If –x > 3,
then x2 > 9. Similarly, if x > 3, then x2 > 9.
October 13, 2024 57
 EXISTENCE PROOFS
 A proof of a proposition of the form xP(x) is called
an existence proof. There are different ways of
proving a theorem of this type. Sometime some
element a is found to show P(a) to be true, this is
called constructive existence proof.
 In other method we do not provide a such that
P(a) is true but prove that xP(x) is true in different
way, this is called nonconstructive existence
proof.
 Example: Constructive
Prove that there are 100 consecutive positive
integers that are not perfect squares.
 Proof:
Lets consider 2500 this is a perfect square of 50, and
take 2601 this is a perfect square of 51. In between
2601 and 2500 there are 100 consecutive positive
integers. Hence the proof.
October 13, 2024 58
 PROOF OF EQUIVALENCE
 We can prove the equivalence i.e. p  q by showing p  q
and q  p both.
 Example:
Prove that if n is a positive integer, then n is even if and
only if 7n + 4 is even.
 Proof:
 Assume n is even then we have an integer k such that n =
2k, so 7n + 4 = 7*2k +4 = 2(7k +2) here 7k + 4 is an
integer so that 7n + 4 = 2l, where l =7k + 2 i.e. 7n + 4 is
even.
 By direct proof it is proved that if n is even, then 7n + 4 is
even.
 Assume n is odd then we have an integer m such that n =
2m + 1, then 7n + 4 = 14m +7 + 4 = 2(7m + 5) +1here
since 7m + 5 is an integer 7n + 4 is an odd number by
indirect proof it is proved that if 7n + 4 is even, then n is
even.
 Hence proved.
October 13, 2024 59
 PROOFS BY COUNTER EXAMPLES
 We stated that to show that a statement of the form
xP(x) is false, we need only find a counterexample,
that is, an example x for which P(x) is false. When
presented with a statement of the form xP(x), which we
believe to be false or which has resisted all proof
attempts, we look for a counterexample.
 Example:
 Show that the statement “Every positive integer is the
sum of the squares of two integers” is false.
 Solution:
 To show that this statement is false, we look for a
counterexample, which is a particular integer that is not
the sum of the squares of two integers.
 It does not take long to find a counterexample, because 3
cannot be written as the sum of the squares of two
integers. To show this is the case, note that the only
perfect squares not exceeding 3 are 02 = 0 and 12 = 1.
 Furthermore, there is no way to get 3 as the sum of two
terms each of which is 0 or 1. Consequently, we have
shown that “Every positive integer is the sum of the
October 13, 2024 60
 MISTAKES IN PROOFS
 There are many common errors made in
constructing mathematical proofs. We will
briefly describe some of these here.
 Among the most common errors are mistakes in
arithmetic and basic algebra. Even professional
mathematicians make such errors, especially
when working with complicated formulae.
 Whenever you use such computations you
should check them as carefully as possible.
 Each step of a mathematical proof needs to be
correct and the conclusion needs to follow
logically from the steps that precede it.
 Many mistakes result from the introduction of
steps that do not logically follow from those
that precede it.
October 13, 2024 61
 EXAMPLE
 What is wrong with this famous supposed
“proof” that 1 = 2?

Proof: We use these steps, where a and b are two equal

positive integers.
Step Reason
1. a = b Given
2. a2 = ab Multiply both sides of (1) by a
3. a2 − b2 = ab − b2 Subtract b2 from both sides of (2)
4. (a − b)(a + b) = b(a − b) Factor both sides of (3)
5. a + b = b Divide both sides of (4) by a − b
6. 2b = b Replace a by b in (5) because a = b
and simplify
7. 2 = 1 Divide both sides of (6) by b
Solution: Every step is valid except for one, step 5 where
we divided both sides by a − b. The error is that a − b
equals zero; division of both sides of an equation by the
same quantity is valid as long as this quantity is not zero.

October 13, 2024 62

 EXAMPLE
 What is wrong with this “proof?”
Theorem: If n2 is positive, then n is positive.
Proof: Suppose that n2 is positive. Because the
conditional statement “If n is positive, then n2 is
positive” is true, we can conclude that n is positive.
 Solution: Let P(n) be “n is positive” and Q(n) be “n2
is positive.” Then our hypothesis is Q(n).
 The statement “If n is positive, then n2 is positive” is
the statement n(P (n)  Q(n)).
 From the hypothesis Q(n) and the statement n(P(n)
 Q(n)) we cannot conclude P(n), because we are
not using a valid rule of inference.
 Instead, this is an example of the fallacy of affirming
the conclusion.
 A counterexample is supplied by n = −1 for which
n2 = 1 is positive, but n is negative.
October 13, 2024 63
 EXAMPLE
 What is wrong with this “proof?”
“Theorem:” If n is not positive, then n2 is not
positive.
“Proof:" Suppose that n is not positive. Because the
conditional statement “If n is positive, then n2 is
positive” is true, we can conclude that n2 is not
positive.
 Solution: Let P(n) be “n is positive” and Q(n) be “n2
is positive.” Then our hypothesis is ¬P(n) and the
statement “If n is positive, then n2 is positive” is the
statement n(P (n)  Q(n)).
 From the hypothesis ¬P(n) and the statement n(P
(n)  Q(n)) we cannot conclude ¬Q(n), because we
are not using a valid rule of inference.
 Instead, this is an example of the fallacy of denying
the hypothesis. A counterexample is supplied
October 13, 2024 64 by n =
 MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION
 Mathematical induction is a method of
mathematical proof typically used to establish a
given statement for all natural numbers.
 It is a form of direct proof, and it is done in two
steps.
 The first step, known as the basis step, is to
prove the given statement holds for the first
natural number i.e. 1.
 The second step, known as the inductive step,
is to prove that if the given statement holds for
any one natural number then the given
statement must also hold for the next natural
number.
 From these two steps, mathematical induction
is the rule from which we infer that the given
statement is established for all natural
October 13, 2024 65
 PRINCIPLE OF
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
 To prove that P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, where P(n) is a
propositional function, we complete
two steps:
 BASIS STEP: We verify that P(1) is
true.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: We show that the
conditional statement P(k) $ P(k + 1)
is true for all positive integers k.

October 13, 2024 66

 EXAMPLE
 Show that if n is a positive integer, then
1 + 2 + ··· + n =n(n + 1)/2.
 Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that the sum
of the first n positive integers, 1 + 2 + ·· · n =
n(n+1)/2 , is n(n + 1)/2.
 We must do two things to prove that P(n) is true
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Namely, we must show that
P(1) is true and that the conditional statement
P(k) implies P(k + 1) is true for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
 BASIS STEP: P(1) is true, because 1 =1(1 + 1)/2
 INDUCTIVE STEP: For the inductive hypothesis
we assume that P(k) holds for an arbitrary
positive integer k. That is, we assume that
1 + 2 + ··· + k =k(k + 1)/2.

October 13, 2024 67

 EXAMPLE CONTD.
 Under this assumption, it must be shown that P(k + 1) is
true, namely, that
1 + 2 + ··· + k + (k + 1) = (k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]/ 2
=(k + 1)(k + 2)/2
is also true.
When we add k + 1 to both sides of the equation in P(k),
we obtain
1 + 2 + ··· + k + (k + 1) = k(k + 1)/2 + (k + 1)
=[k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)]/2
=(k + 1)(k + 2)/2.
 This last equation shows that P(k + 1) is true under the
assumption that P(k) is true. This completes the inductive
step.
 We have completed the basis step and the inductive step,
so by mathematical induction we know that P(n) is true
for all positive integers n.
 That is, we have proven that 1 + 2 + ··· + n = n(n + 1)/2
for all positive integers n. October 13, 2024 68
 EXAMPLE
 Conjecture a formula for the sum of the first n positive odd integers.
Then prove your conjecture using mathematical induction.
 Solution: The sums of the first n positive odd integers for n = 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 are
1 = 1, 1 + 3 = 4, 1 + 3 + 5 = 9, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
+ 9 = 25.
 From these values it is reasonable to conjecture that the sum of the
first n positive odd integers is n2, that is, 1 + 3 + 5 + ··· + (2n − 1)
= n2. We need a method to prove that this conjecture is correct, if in
fact it is.
 Let P(n) denote the proposition that the sum of the first n odd
positive integers is n2. Our conjecture is that P(n) is true for all
positive integers.
 BASIS STEP: P(1) states that the sum of the first one odd positive
integer is 12. This is true because the sum of the first odd positive
integer is 1. The basis step is complete.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: To complete the inductive step we must show
that the proposition P(k)  P(k + 1) is true for every positive integer
k. To do this, we first assume the inductive hypothesis. The
inductive hypothesis is the statement that P(k) is true for an
arbitrary positive integer k, that is, October 13, 2024 69
 EXAMPLE CONTD.
1 + 3 + 5 + ··· + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1) 2.
So, assuming that P(k) is true, it follows that
1 + 3 + 5 + ··· + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = [1 + 3 + ··· +
(2k − 1)] + (2k + 1)
= k2 + (2k + 1)
= k2 + 2k + 1
= (k + 1)2.
This shows that P(k + 1) follows from P(k).
 We have now completed both the basis step and the
inductive step. That is, we have shown that P(1) is true
and the conditional statement P(k)  P(k + 1) is true for all
positive integers k.
 Consequently, by the principle of mathematical induction
we can conclude that P(n) is true for all positive integers
n.
 That is, we know that 1 + 3 +October
5 +13,···2024
+ (2n − 1) 70
= n 2 for
 EXAMPLE
 Use mathematical induction to show that 20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2n = 2n+1 − 1
for all nonnegative integers n.
 Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that 20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2n = 2n+1 − 1
for the integer n.
 BASIS STEP: P(0) is true because 20 = 1 = 21 − 1. This completes the basis
step.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: For the inductive hypothesis, we assume that P(k) is true
for an arbitrary nonnegative integer k. That is, we assume that
20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2k = 2k+1 − 1.
 To carry out the inductive step using this assumption, we must show that
when we assume that P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is also true. That is, we
must show that
20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2k + 2k+1 = 2k+1 +1 − 1 = 2k+2 − 1
assuming the inductive hypothesis P(k).
 Under the assumption of P(k), we see that
20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2k + 2k+1 = (20 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2k )+ 2k+1
= (2k+1 − 1) + 2k+1
= 2 · 2k+1 − 1
= 2k+2 − 1.
 We have completed the inductive step. Because we have completed the
basis step and the inductive step, by mathematical induction we know that
P(n) is true for all nonnegative integers n. That is, 2 0 + 21 + 22 + ··· + 2n =
2n+1 − 1 for all nonnegative integers n. October 13, 2024 71
 EXAMPLE
 Use mathematical induction to prove the
inequality n < 2n for all positive integers n.
 Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that n < 2 n.
 BASIS STEP: P(1) is true, because 1 < 2 1 = 2.
This completes the basis step.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: We first assume the inductive
hypothesis that P(k) is true for an arbitrary
positive integer k. That is, the inductive
hypothesis P(k) is the statement that k < 2 k.
 To complete the inductive step, we need to show
that if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1), which is the
statement that k + 1 < 2k+1, is true. That is, we
need to show that if k < 2 k, then k + 1 < 2k+1.
October 13, 2024 72
 EXAMPLE
 that this conditional statement is true for
the positive integer k, we first add 1 to both
sides of k < 2k, and then note that 1  2k.
 This tells us that
k + 1 < 2k +1  2k + 2k = 2 · 2k = 2k+1.
 This shows that P(k + 1) is true, namely,
that k + 1 < 2k+1, based on the assumption
that P(k) is true. The induction step is
complete.
 Therefore, because we have completed
both the basis step and the inductive step,
by the principle of mathematical induction
we have shown that n < 2n is true for all
positive integers n.
October 13, 2024 73
 STRONG INDUCTION
 When we cannot easily prove a result using mathematical
induction then we use strong mathematical induction.
 It is also known as second principal of mathematical
induction or complete induction.
 The basis step of a proof by strong induction is the same as
a proof of the same result using mathematical induction.
That is, in a strong induction proof that P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, the basis step shows that P(1) is true.
 However, the inductive steps in these two proof methods
are different.
 In a proof by mathematical induction, the inductive step
shows that if the inductive hypothesis P(k) is true, then P(k
+ 1) is also true.
 In a proof by strong induction, the inductive step shows that
if P(j) is true for all positive integers not exceeding k, then
P(k + 1) is true. That is, for the inductive hypothesis we
assume that P(j ) is true for j = 1, 2, . . . , k.
October 13, 2024 74
 STRONG INDUCTION
 To prove that P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, where P(n) is
a propositional function, we
complete two steps:
 BASIS STEP: We verify that the
proposition P(1) is true.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: We show that
the conditional statement [P(1) 
P(2)  · · ·  P(k)]P(k + 1) is true
for all positive integers k.
October 13, 2024 75
 WELL-ORDERING
PROPERTY
 The validity of both the principle of
mathematical induction and strong
induction follows from a fundamental
axiom of the set of integers known as
well-ordering property.
 The well-ordering property states that
every nonempty set of nonnegative
integers has a least element.
 The well-ordering property can often be
used directly in proofs.

October 13, 2024 76

 RECURSION
 A recursive or inductive definition of a
function consists of two steps.
 Basis step: Specify the value of the function
at zero.
 Recursive step: Give a rule for finding its
value at an integer from its values at smaller
integers.
 Example: Give a recursive definition of the
factorial function n!.
f(0) = 1
f(n + 1) = (n + 1) . f(n)
 Example: Fibonacci numbers. f(0) = 0, f(1) =
1 and f(n + 2) = f(n + 1) + f(n).
October 13, 2024 77
 RECURSION
 Recursive definitions of sets have two parts:
 The basis step specifies an initial collection of
elements.
 The recursive step gives the rules for forming
new elements in the set from those already
known to be in the set.
 Sometimes the recursive definition has an
exclusion rule, which specifies that the set
contains nothing other than those elements
specified in the basis step and generated by
applications of the rules in the recursive step.
 We will always assume that the exclusion rule
holds, even if it is not explicitly mentioned.

October 13, 2024 78