LESSON 3

basic radiation
concepts
AJBD
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Name the fundamental particles of atom
and list characteristics of each.
• Draw or describe a conceptual model of
atomic structure.
• List and describe the different forms of
energy.
• List the properties of x-ray.
• Explain the relationship between potential
difference, current and resistance in an
electric circuit and state the units used to
measure each.
• Compare a step-up transformer and step-
down transformer.
atoms
Introduction
Matter is defi ned as anything that occupies
space. It is the material substance with mass
of which physical objects are composed.

A primary, distinguishing characteristic of

matter is mass, the quantity of matter
contained in any physical object. Mass is
measured in kilograms (kg).

All matter is composed of fundamental

building blocks called atoms, which are
arranged in various complex ways.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
GREEK ATOM
The earliest recorded reference to the
investigation of atoms comes from the
Greeks several hundred years BC
(Democritus). Scientists at that time
thought that all matter was composed
of four substances: earth, water, air
and fi re.

The Greeks used the term atom,

meaning “indivisible” [a (not) + temon
(cut)] to describe the smallest of
matter.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
DALTON ATOM
In 1808, John Dalton, published a book
summarizing his experiments, which showed
that the elements could be classifi ed
according to integral values of atomic mass.

According to Dalton, an element was

composed of identical atoms that reacted the
same way chemically.

They were, however, very diff erent from

atoms of any other element. The physical
combination of one type of an atom with
another was visualized as being a hook-and-
eye aff air.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
DMITRI MENDELEEV arranged the
periodic table in order of increasing
atomic mass.

Group 1 Alkali metal - soft metals

that combine readily with oxygen and
react violently with water.

Group VII Halogen - easily vaporized

and combines with metals to form
water- soluble salts.

Group VIII Noble gases - are highly

resistant to reaction with other
elements.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
THOMSON ATOM
In the late 1890’s, while investigating the physical
properties of cathode rays, J.J Thomson concluded
that electrons were integral part of all atoms.

He described the atoms as looking something like a

plum pudding, in which the plums were represented
negative electric charges (electrons) and the
pudding was a shapeless mass of uniform positive
electrifi cation.

The number of electrons was thought to equal the

quantity of positive electrifi cation because this atom
was known to be equally neutral.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
RUTHERFORD ATOM
Ernest Rutherford in 1911 disproved
Thomson’s model of the atom.
Rutherford introduced the nuclear
model, which described the atom as
containing a small, dense, positively
charged center surrounded by a
negative cloud of electrons.

He called the center of the atom the

nucleus.
atoms
Centuries of discovery
QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS (QCD)
In theoretical physics, quantum
chromodynamics (QCD) is the study of the NUCLEUS

strong interaction between quarks mediated ELECTRON

by gluons.

Quarks are fundamental particles that make

up composite hadrons such as the proton,
neutron and pion.

Gluons are the force carriers of the theory,

QUARKS
just as photons are for the electromagnetic
GLUONS
force in quantum electrodynamics. NEUTRON PROTON
atoms
Centuries of discovery
RUTHERFORD ATOM
Ernest Rutherford in 1911 disproved
Thomson’s model of the atom.
Rutherford introduced the nuclear
model, which described the atom as
containing a small, dense, positively
charged center surrounded by a
negative cloud of electrons.

He called the center of the atom the

nucleus.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
• Atoms are composed of neutrons
and protons in the nucleus and
electrons in specifi c orbits
surrounding the nucleus.

• The three primary constituents of an

atom, the electron, the proton,
and the neutron, are considered
here.

• They are the fundamental

particles.
 ELECTRONS
• They are very small particles that carry one unit of
negative electric charge. Their mass is only 9.1 x
10−31kg.
• Because an atomic particle is extremely small, its
mass is expressed in atomic mass units (amu) for
convenience.
• One atomic mass unit is equal to one mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
• The electron mass is 0.000549 amu.
• When the precision is not necessary, a system of
whole numbers called atomic mass numbers is used.
The atomic mass number of electron is zero.
• Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897
 protons
• The proton is a subatomic particle with a positive
electrical charge. It has a mass of 1.673 x 10-27 kg.
• In 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered that at the core
of every atom is a nucleus. In almost every element,
protons are accompanied by neutrons.
• The only exception is the nucleus of the simplest element,
hydrogen. Hydrogen contains only a single proton and no
neutrons.
• The proton mass is 1.00728 amu.
• When the precision is not necessary, a system of whole
numbers called atomic mass numbers is used. The atomic
mass number of electron is one.
• In 1886, Eugen Goldstein discovered evidence for the
existence of this positively charged particle. Using a
cathode ray tube with holes in the cathode, he noticed
that there were rays traveling in the opposite direction
from the cathode rays.
 neutrons
• Neutrons have a neutral electric charge
(neither negative nor positive) and have slightly
more mass than positively charged protons.
• The nucleus contains particles called nucleons,
of which there are two types: protons and
neutrons. Both have nearly 2000 times the mass
of an electron. The mass of the proton is 1.673 x
10−27kg; the neutron is slightly heavier at
1.675 x 10−27kg.
• The primary diff erence between a proton and a
neutron is electric charge. The proton carries
one unit of positive electric charge. The neutron
carries no charge; it is electrically neutral.
• Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932
 IONIZATION
• When an atom or molecule
gains or loses an electron it
becomes an ion.
• A cation has lost an electron
and therefore has a positive
charge
• An anion has gained an
electron and therefore has a
negative charge.
 atomic structure
• Electron orbits are grouped into diff erent
“shells.” The arrangement of these shells
helps reveal how an atom reacts chemically,
that is, how it combines with other atoms to
form molecules
• The number of electrons ultimately
determines the chemical behavior of an
atom.
• The number of protons determines the
chemical element.
• Electrons can exist only in certain shells,
which represent diff erent electron binding
energies or energy levels.
• For identifi cation purposes, electron orbital
shells are given the codes K,L,M,N, O, P and
Q, to relative binding energies of electrons
from the closest to the nucleus to the farthest
from the nucleus.
 atomic structure
• The closer an electron is to the nucleus,
the greater is its binding energy.
• The total number of electrons in the orbital

protons in the nucleus ( 𝑝 + = 𝑒 −)

shells is exactly equal to the number of

• If an atom has gained an extra electron or

has had an electron removed, it is said to
be ionized.
• An ionized atom is not electrically neutral
but carries a charge equal in magnitude to
the diff erence between the number of
protons and electrons.
electron arrangement
• Physicists call the shell number n the principal
quantum number.
• The maximum number of electron that can exist
in each shell increases with the distance of the
shell from the nucleus. the electron limit per

2 𝑛 2 (Pauli’s exclusion theory).

shell can be calculated from the expression:

• The number of electrons in the outermost

shell is equal to its group in the periodic table.
• It determines the valence of an atom. The
number of the outermost electron shell is
equal to its period in the periodic table.
• No outer shell can contain more than eight
electrons (Octet Rule).
• An atom will gain or lose electrons to obtain 8
valence electrons.
 electron binding
energy
• The strength of attachment of an electron to the

designated 𝐸𝑏 .
nucleus is called the electron binding energy,

• The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the more

tightly it is bound.
• K-shell electrons have higher binding energies
than L-shell electrons, and so forth.
• The greater the total number of electrons in an
atom, the more tightly each is bound.

is the 𝐸𝑏 for electrons in any given shell.

• The larger and more complex the atom, the higher

• Because electrons of atoms with many protons are

more tightly bound to the nucleus than those of
small atoms, it generally takes more energy to
ionize a large atom than a small atom
energy
 forms of energy
energy • Potential energy is the ability to
• Energy is the ability to do work by virtue of position.
do work. Like matter, • Kinetic energy is the energy of
energy can exist in motion. It is possessed by all
several forms. matter in motion.
• In the International • Chemical energy is the energy
System (SI), energy is released by a chemical reaction.
measured in joules (J). • Electrical energy represents the
• In Radiology, the unit work that can be done when an
electron volt (eV). electron moves through an electric
potential difference (voltage).
 forms of energy
• Thermal energy (heat) is the energy of motion at the
molecular level. It is the kinetic energy of molecules
and is closely related to temperature.
• Nuclear energy is the energy that is contained within
the nucleus of an atom. We control the release and use
of this type of energy in electric nuclear power plants.
• Electromagnetic energy is perhaps the least familiar
form of energy. It is the most important for our
purposes, however, because it is the type of energy
that is used in x-ray imaging.
 electromagnetic radiation
• X-rays and gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic ionizing
radiation.
• X-rays and gamma rays are often called photons.
• Photons have no mass and no charge. They travel at the speed of
light (c = 3 × 108 m/s) and are considered energy disturbances in
space
• X-rays are produced outside the nucleus in the electron shells.
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
• Frequency • Velocity
• Wavelength • Amplitude
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNET
IC ENERGY
FREQUENCY
• The rate of rise & fall
• Symbol: f
• SI Unit: hertz (Hz) or cycles/s
• 1 Hz: 1 cycle/second
• Equal to the number of crests
or valleys that pass the point
of an observer per unit time
• Inversely proportional to the
wavelength
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNET
IC ENERGY
WAVELENGTH
• Distance from one crest to
another
• Distance from one valley to
another
• Distance from one point on the
sine wave to the next
corresponding point
• Unit: Lambda (λ)
• Inversely proportional to the
frequency
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
VELOCITY
• c: speed of light
• Constant SI Unit: 3 x 108 m/s
• Constant British Unit: 186,000 mi/s

AMPLITUDE
• The width of a waveform
• It is one-half the range from crest
to valley over which the sine wave
varies.
• It is not related to wavelength or
frequency
 PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
• X-RAYS ARE INVISIBLE
• X-RAYS ARE ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL
• X-RAYS HAVE NO MASS
• X-RAYS TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT
IN A VACUUM
• X-RAYS CANNOT BE OPTICALLY FOCUSED
• X-RAYS FORM A POLYENERGETIC OR
HETEROGENOUS BEAM
• X-RAY CAN BE PRODUCED IN A RANGE
OF ENERGIES
 PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
• X-RAYS TRAVEL IN STRAIGHT LINES
• X-RAYS CAN CAUSE SOME SUBSTANCE TO
FLUORESCE
• X-RAYS CAN CAUSE CHEMICAL CHANGES TO
OCCUR IN RADIOGRAPHIC AND
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
• X-RAYS CAN PENETRATE THE HUMAN BODY
• X-RAYS CAN BE ABSORBED OR SCATTERED BY
TISSUE IN THE HUMAN BODY
• X-RAYS CAN PRODUCE SECONDARY
RADIATION.
• X-RAYS CAN CAUSE CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE TO LIVING TISSUE.
electricity
electricity
• The primary function of the x-ray imaging
system is to convert electric energy into
electromagnetic energy.
• Electric energy is supplied to the x-ray imaging
system in the form of well- controlled electric
current.
• A conversion takes place in the x-ray tube,
where most of this electric energy is transformed
into heat, some of it into x-rays.
• Electricity is recognized as an electrodynamic
phenomenon. When an electric potential is
applied to an object, such as a copper wire,
electrons move along it. This is referred to as an
electric current or electricity.
electric states
• A conductor is any substance through
which electrons fl ow easily. e.g. copper and
water.
• An insulator is any material that does not
allow electron fl ow. e.g. glass, clay, and
other earthlike materials.
• A semiconductor is a material that under
some conditions behaves as an insulator
and in other conditions behaves as a
conductor. e.g. Silicon (Si) and
Germanium (Ge).
• Superconductivity is the property of
some materials to exhibit no resistance
below a critical temperature (Tc). e.g.
Niobium and Titanium
electric circuits The way electric currents behave
in an electric circuit is described
• Electric circuit is a
by a relationship known as Ohm’s
continuous path for the fl ow of
law.
electric charges from the
power source through one or
more electric devices and back
to the source.
• Electric current is measured
in amperes (A). The ampere is
proportional to the number of
electrons fl owing in the
electric circuit.
• Electric potential is
measured in volts (V), and
electric resistance is
measured in ohms (Ω).
types of electric circuits
series circuit
In a series circuit, all circuit
elements are connected in a line
along the same conductor.

Rules for Series Circuits:

• The total resistance is equal to
the sum of the individual
resistances.
• The current through each circuit
element is the same and is
equal to the total circuit current.
• The sum of the voltages across
each circuit element is equal to
the total circuit voltage.
types of electric circuits
parallel circuit
A parallel circuit contains elements
that are connected at their ends
rather than lying in a line along a
conductor.

Rules for Parallel Circuits:

• The sum of the currents through
each circuit element is equal tothe
total circuit current.
• The voltage across each circuit
element is the same and is equal to
the total circuit voltage.
• The total resistance is the inverse of
the sum of the reciprocals of each
individual resistance.
electric circuits
• Electric current, or electricity, is
the fl ow of electrons through a
conductor.
• These electrons can be made to fl ow
in one direction along the conductor,
in which case the electric current is
called direct current (DC).
• Most applications of electricity
require that the electrons be
controlled so that they fl ow fi rst in
one direction and then in the
opposite direction.
• Current in which electrons oscillate
back and forth is called alternating
current (AC).
transformers
transformers
• A device that is used to produce the high voltage needed for x-ray
production.
• However, the transformer does not convert one form of energy to another
but rather transforms electric potential and current into higher or lower
intensity.
• Transformers consists of primary and secondary coils, usually
surrounding an iron core. The iron core further enhances the magnetic
fi elds of the coils. Electric current always fl ows from the primary to the
secondary coils. A transformer will operate only with a changing electric
current (AC).
transformers
Transformer law

The transformer is used to

change the magnitude of
voltage and current in an AC
circuit. The change in
voltage is directly
proportional to the ratio of
the number of turns
(windings) of the secondary
coil (Ns) to the number of
turns in the primary coil
(Np).
transformers
Transformer law
• A transformer with a turns ratio
greater than 1 is a step-up
transformer because the voltage
is increased or stepped up from the
primary side to the secondary side.
• When the turns ratio is less than
1, the transformer is a step-down
transformer.
• The change in current across a
transformer is in the opposite
direction from the voltage change
but in the same proportion: an
inverse relationship.
types of transformers
A. CLOSED CORE TRANSFORMER
B. AUTOTRANSFORMER
C. SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER
Thank you
very AJBD
much!