UNIT 3

SENSORY, COORDINATION AND CONTROL

Introduction to the nervous system
• The nervous system is a crucial component of
mammalian physiology, as it controls and coordinates
body activities by transmitting signals to and from
different parts of the body.
Learning Outcomes
• Understand the basic structure and function of the nervous
system in mammals.
• Differentiate between the central and peripheral nervous
systems.
• Explain the role of neurons and synapses in transmitting
signals.
• Identify key parts of the brain and their respective functions.
• Understand the concept of reflex actions and how they are
mediated.
• Understand the histology of the nervous tissue
• Be able to functionally and structurally classify neurons
Development of the nervous system
Neural Induction
• The process by which the ectoderm is directed to form the
neural plate, which eventually folds into the neural tube.
Neurulation
• Formation of the neural tube, which gives rise to the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Neural Crest Cells
A population of cells that migrate from the neural tube and
give rise to various cell types, including peripheral
neurons, glial cells, and melanocytes.
Organization of the nervous system
A. Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Comprises the brain and spinal cord. It acts as the
control center for processing information and initiating
responses.
B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Consists of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of
the body.
• It is further divided into the
Central nervous system (CNS)

I. Brain
Main control center for the body, responsible for interpreting sensory
information, initiating motor functions, and managing cognitive processes
like thinking, memory, and emotion.
• Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, involved in higher brain
functions such as thought, voluntary movement, language,
reasoning, and perception.
• Cerebellum: Located under the cerebrum, it coordinates voluntary
movements like posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in
smooth and balanced muscular activity.
• Brainstem: Controls basic life functions like breathing, heart rate,
and blood pressure. It connects the brain to the spinal cord.
• Diencephalon: Includes the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are
involved in sensory and autonomic functions such as temperature
regulation, hunger, and thirst.
Central nervous system (CNS)

II. Spinal Cord

• The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure that
extends from the brainstem down through the vertebral
column.
• It transmits neural signals between the brain and the
rest of the body and coordinates reflexes.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• The PNS connects the CNS to the limbs and organs. It is
responsible for transmitting information to and from the
CNS. The PNS is further divided into two major systems:
I. Somatic Nervous System
• This system is responsible for voluntary control of body
movements via skeletal muscles. It consists of sensory
(afferent) neurons, which carry information from
sensory organs to the CNS, and motor (efferent)
neurons, which carry commands from the CNS to the
muscles.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
II. Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body
functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.
It is divided into
a). Sympathetic Nervous System
• Activates the 'fight or flight' response during stressful situations,
increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and inhibiting digestion.
b). Parasympathetic Nervous System
Promotes the 'rest and digest' response, calming the body by
decreasing heart rate, constricting pupils, and stimulating
digestion
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
III. Enteric Nervous System
• Sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous
system, it directly controls the gastrointestinal system,
regulating digestion and bowel function.
Functional overview of the nervous
system
Sensory (Afferent) Division
• This part of the PNS carries sensory information from receptors in the
body to the CNS. It allows the brain to process sensations such as touch,
pain, temperature, and body position.
Integrative division (CNS)
• Process, analyses, stores and makes decision for appropriate responses
• Most important function of integration is perception (conscious awareness
of sensory stimuli)
Motor (Efferent) Division
• This part of the PNS carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles
and glands. It includes both the somatic nervous system (controlling
skeletal muscles) and the autonomic nervous system (controlling smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands).
Integration of the CNS and PNS
Reflex Arc
• A reflex arc is the simplest neural pathway and involves
the direct connection between sensory neurons and
motor neurons within the spinal cord, bypassing the
brain for a quick response. This is seen in reflex actions
such as the knee-jerk response.
Higher-Level Functions
• The CNS interprets complex sensory input and initiates
responses by integrating signals from multiple parts of
the body. The PNS serves as the communication line
that enables this information exchange.
Histology of the nervous tissue
Cells of nervous tissue
I. Neurons
• Respond to a stimulus and convert to an action
potential
Action potential
• Is an electrical signal that propagates along the surface of the
membrane of a neuron due to movement of sodium and
potassium.
• Action potentials travels rapidly and at a constant strength
• They travel great distance at speeds ranging from 0.5 to 130
meters per second
Histology of the nervous tissue
Parts of a neuron
a). Cell body (soma)
• Contains nucleus and organelles
b). Nerve fiber (projections from cell body)
i. Dendrites
• Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons
ii. Axon
• Long, slender projection that transmits electrical impulses
away from the cell body to another neuron, muscle fiber or a
gland
Histology of the nervous tissue
d). Axon hillock
• The region where the axon originates, crucial for the initiation of
action potentials at trigger zone (part between axon hillock and
initial segment)
e). Myelin sheath
• Fatty layer that covers axons, increasing the of signal
transmission
f). Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath where action potentials are regenerated
g). Synaptic or axon terminals
Ends of axons that release neurotransmitters into synapses
Classification of neurons
Structural classification
• Classified according to number of processes extending from the cell boy
I. Multipolar neurons
• Have several dendrites and one axon
• Most neurons in CNS and motor neurons
II. Bipolar neurons
• Have one main dendrite and one axon
• Found in retina, inner ear and olfactory area of the brain
III. Unipolar neurons
• Have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form a continues
process emerging from cell body
• Function as sensory receptors
Classification of neurons
Functional classification
I. Sensory or afferent neurons
• Carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS via
cranial or spinal nerves. Unipolar neurons
II. Motor or efferent neurons
• Transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands
(effector organs). Multipolar neurons
III. Interneurons
• Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.
• Process incoming sensory information. Multipolar neurons
Supporting cells of the nervous
system
Glial Cells (Neuroglia)
I. CNS Glial Cells
a). Astrocytes: Support neurons, form the blood-brain
barrier, regulate neurotransmitter levels.
b). Oligodendrocytes: Produce myelin in the CNS.
c). Microglia: Act as the CNS's immune cells, removing
debris and pathogens.
d). Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles of the brain and the
central canal of the spinal cord; involved in producing
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Supporting cells of the nervous
system
II. PNS Glial Cells:
a). Schwann Cells: Produce myelin in the PNS.
b). Satellite Cells: Surround neuron cell bodies in
ganglia, providing support and nutrients.
Organization of Nervous Tissue
I. Gray Matter
• Composed mainly of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated
axons.
• Found in the cerebral cortex, nuclei of the brain, and the central part of
the spinal cord.
II. White Matter
• Consists of myelinated axons that connect different parts of the CNS.
• Located in deeper parts of the brain and the outer regions of the spinal
cord.
III. Ganglia and Nerves in the PNS
a). Ganglia: Clusters of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS.
b). Nerves: Bundles of axons in the PNS.