MODULE 2

Energy Efficiency in Electrical Systems: Electricity billing,

Electrical load management and maximum demand Control, Maximum
demand controllers; Power factor improvement, Automatic power factor
controllers, efficient operation of transformers, energy efficient motors,
Soft starters, Variable speed drives; Performance evaluation of fans and
pumps, Flow control strategies and energy conservation opportunities in
fans and pumps, Electronic ballast, Energy efficient lighting and
measures of energy efficiency in lighting system.

October 7, 2024
 Introduction:
Electric power supply system in a country comprises of
• Generating units that produce electricity
• High voltage transmission lines that transport electricity
over long distances
• Distribution lines that deliver the electricity to consumers
• Substations that connect the pieces to each other and
• Energy control centers to coordinate the operation of the
components.

October 7, 2024
October 7, 2024
Power Generation Plant

October 7, 2024
Power Generation Plant

• The fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, nuclear
energy, and falling water (hydro) are commonly used
energy sources in the power generating plant.
• About 70 % of power generating capacity in India is
from coal based thermal power plants.
• Energy stored in the coal is converted in to electricity in
thermal power plant.

October 7, 2024
• Powdered coal is blown into the water wall boiler
where it is burned at higher than C.
• The heat in the combustion gas is transferred into
steam.
• This high pressure steam is used to run the steam
turbine to spin.
• Turbine rotates the generator to produce electricity.
• In India, for the coal based power plants, the overall
efficiency ranges from 28% to 35% depending upon the
size, operational practices and capacity utilization.
October 7, 2024
Transmission and Distribution Lines

October 7, 2024
Transmission and Distribution Lines

• Power plants generate the AC power at 50 Hz frequency, with the

voltages between 11kV and 33kV.
• The Power generated is stepped up to High voltage and Extra high
voltage for transmission purpose over a long distance i.e 400 kV
or 220 kV minimize the losses.(Primary transmission).
• This is further step down 132 kV/110kV/66kV or 33 kV at
receiving station (Secondary transmission).
• At substation this voltage is reduced to 11kV/6.6kV/3.3kV , these
voltage is supplied for bulk consumers (Primary Distribution).

October 7, 2024
• Then distribution voltage is again stepped down to 440 and 230
volts.
• This power is then supplied for commercial and residential
consumer through distribution lines. (Secondary Distribution).
• There is no difference between a transmission line and a
distribution line except for the voltage level and power handling
capability.
• Transmission lines are usually capable of transmitting large
quantities of electric energy over great distances. They operate at
high voltages. Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power
over shorter distances.
October 7, 2024
• The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of
current. (i.e. .
• Higher voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to
minimize line voltage drop in the ratio of voltages, and the line
power loss in the ratio of square of voltages.
• Lower voltage transmission and distribution also calls for bigger
size conductor on account of current handling capacity needed.

October 7, 2024
Industrial End User
• At the industrial end user premises, again the plant network
elements like transformers at receiving sub-station, switchgear,
lines and cables, load-break switches, capacitors cause losses,
which affect the input-received energy.
• After power generation at the plant it is transmitted and
distributed over a wide network.
• The standard technical losses are around 17 % in India
(Efficiency = 83%).
• For many of the states show T & D losses ranging from 17 - 50
%
October 7, 2024
• When the power reaches the industry, it meets the transformer.
The energy efficiency of the transformer is generally very high.
• Next, it goes to the motor through internal plant distribution
network.
• A typical distribution network efficiency including transformer is
95% and motor efficiency is about 90%.
• Another 30 % (Efficiency =70%)is lost in the mechanical system
which includes coupling/ drive train, a driven equipment such as
pump and flow control valves etc.
• Thus the overall energy efficiency becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95x
0.9 x 0.70 = 0.50, i.e. 50% efficiency).
October 7, 2024
• Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units
generated in the power plant. (1Unit / 0.5Eff = 2 Units)

ONE Unit saved = TWO Units Generated

October 7, 2024
Electricity Billing:
• In electrical engineering, the power rating of equipment is the highest
power input allowed to flow through particular equipment. The term
"power" may refer to electrical or mechanical power.
• One Unit of Electrical Energy: The power consumption of electrical
appliances is measured in term of Units.
• A unit is represented in kWh or Kilowatt Hour.
• This is the actual electricity or energy used. If we use 1000 Watts or 1
Kilowatt of power for 1 hour then you consume 1 unit or 1 kWh of
electricity. Therefore, 1 Unit = 1 kWh
• 1 Unit Electricity = 1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 Hour = 1000 W x 3600
seconds
October 7, 2024
= 3.6×10 6
Joule
Electricity Tariff:
• The methods of charging a consumer for consuming
electric power is known as an electricity tariff.
• Electricity tariff is the amount your electricity provider
charges you for one unit (kWh) of electricity.
• The tariff rates are decided based upon the different types
of consumers such as :
1. Residential
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
October 7, 2024
• The power consumption in kWh in read according to the energy
meter reading.
• The difference between the two consecutive kWh readings of
energy meter taken over a time period gives the number of Units of
electrical energy consumed during that period.
• Let the initial reading of energy meter at the beginning of month =
x kWh
• Final reading of energy meter at the end of month = y kWh
• Then, total kWh consumed for that month = (y-x)
• But 1 Unit = 1 kWh
• Therefore, Total Units of electrical energy consumed = (y-x) Units
October 7, 2024
The tariff structure generally includes the following
components:
a) Maximum demand Charges
b) Energy Charges
c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are
to contain reactive power drawn from grid.
d) Fuel cost adjustment charges
e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
f) Meter rentals
g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied
sometimes on slab basis or on actual metering basis.
October 7, 2024
h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also
prevalent in tariff structure provisions of some utilities.
i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand.
• Analysis of utility bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy
manager to identify ways for electricity bill reduction through
available provisions in tariff framework, apart from energy
budgeting.

October 7, 2024
The utility employs an electromagnetic or electronic
trivector meter, for billing purposes.
The minimum outputs from the electromagnetic meters are:
• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured
in preset time intervals (say of 30 minute duration) and this is reset
at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in kWh during billing cycle
• Reactive energy in kVArh during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in kVAh during billing cycle
It is important to note that while maximum demand is recorded
it is not the instantaneous demand drawn, as is often misunderstood,
October 7, 2024
but the time integrated demand over the predefined recording cycle.
• Electricity boards have changed conventional electromechanical
trivector meters to electronic meters, which have some excellent
provisions that can help the utility as well as the industry.
• These provisions include:
 Substantial memory for logging and recording all relevant events
 High accuracy up to 0.2 class
 Amenability to time of day tariffs
 Tamper detection /recording
 Measurement of harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
 Long service life due to absence of moving parts
 Amenability for remote data access/downloads

October 7, 2024
 Electrical Load Management and Maximum
Demand Control
Need for Electrical Load Management:
• The growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in
time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand.
• As capacity addition is costly and only a long time prospect, better load
management at user end helps to minimize peak demands on the utility
infrastructure as well as better utilization of power plant capacities.
• The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to
influence end user in better load management through measures like time
of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed maximum demand, night
tariff concessions etc.
October 7, 2024
• The growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use
segments in time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet
demand.
• Load management is a powerful means of efficiency
improvement both for end user as well as utility.
• As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the
electricity bill, from user angle too there is a need for integrated
load management to effectively control the maximum demand.

October 7, 2024
Step By Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control
1. Load Curve Generation
2. Rescheduling of Loads
3. Storage of Products/in process material/process utilities like
refrigeration
4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets
6. Reactive Power Compensation.

October 7, 2024
1. Load Curve Generation
• Presenting the load demand of
a consumer against time of the
day is known as a Load curve.
• If it is plotted for the 24 hours
of a single day, it is known as
an Hourly Load curve.
• If daily demands plotted over a month, it is called Daily Load
curves.
• A typical hourly load curve for an engineering industry is shown
in Figure
October 7, 2024
2. Rescheduling of Loads
• Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in
different shifts can be planned and implemented to minimize the
simultaneous maximum demand.
• For this purpose, it is advisable to prepare an operation flow chart
and a process chart.
• Analyzing these charts and with an integrated approach, it would
be possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment in
such a way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the
maximum demand.

October 7, 2024
3. Storage of Products/in process material/ process
utilities like refrigeration
• It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up
storage capacity of products/ materials, water, chilled water / hot
water, using electricity during off peak periods.
• Off peak hour operations also help to save energy due to favorable
conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc

October 7, 2024
4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
• When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding
some of non-essential loads temporarily can help to reduce it.
• It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems, which
will switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is
reached.
• Simple systems give an alarm, and the loads are shed manually.
• Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are also
available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:

October 7, 2024
• Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are also
available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:
 Accurate prediction of demand
 Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
 Visual and audible alarm
 Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
 Automatic restoration of load
 Recording and metering

October 7, 2024
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel
Generation Sets
• When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power
supplied by the electric utilities, it is advisable to connect the D.G.
sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value.
• This would reduce the load demand to a considerable extent and
minimize the demand charges.

October 7, 2024
6. Reactive Power Compensation
• The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by
using capacitor banks and maintaining the optimum power factor.
• Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor based control
systems.
• These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain
the desired Power factor of system and optimize maximum
demand thereby

October 7, 2024
Maximum Demand Controllers
• High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in
addition to the usual charge for the number of units consumed.
• This charge is usually based on the highest amount of power used during
some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month.
• The maximum demand charge often represents a large proportion of the
total bill and may be based on only one isolated 30 minute episode of
high power use.
• Considerable savings can be realized by monitoring power use and
turning off or reducing non-essential loads during such periods of high
power use

October 7, 2024
October 7, 2024
• Maximum Demand Controller (See Figure10.1) is a device designed to
meet the need of industries conscious of the value of load management.
• Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a preset value.
• If corrective action is not taken, the controller switches off non-essential
loads in a logical sequence.
• This sequence is predetermined by the user and is programmed jointly
by the user and the supplier of the device.
• The plant equipments selected for the load management are stopped and
restarted as per the desired load profile.
• Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable control
contactors.
• Audio and visual annunciations could also be used
October 7, 2024
 Power Factor Improvement
Power Factor Basics
• In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the major
loads are resistive and inductive.
• Resistive loads are incandescent lighting.
• In case of pure resistive loads, the voltage (V), current
(I), resistance (R) relations are linearly related, i.e
V=IxR
and

October 7, 2024
P=VxI
• Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction furnaces,
transformers and ballast-type lighting.
• Inductive loads require two kinds of power:
a. Active (or working) power to perform the work
b. Reactive power to create and maintain electro-
magnetic fields
• Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watts).
• Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo Volt-Amperes
Reactive).

October 7, 2024
• The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make up the total
(or apparent) power used.
• This is the power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given
amount of work.
• Total Power is measured in kVA (Kilo Volts-Amperes).
• The active power in kW and the reactive power required (kVAr) are 90°
apart vectorically in a pure inductive circuit i.e., reactive power kVAr
lagging the active kW.
October 7, 2024
• The vector sum of the two is called the apparent power or kVA, as
illustrated above and the kVA reflects the actual electrical load on
distribution system.
• The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor, which is always
less than or equal to unity.
Power factor = =
• when electric utilities supply power, if all loads have unity power
factor, maximum power can be transferred for the same distribution
system capacity.
• As the loads are inductive in nature, with the power factor ranging
from 0.2 to 0.9, the electrical distribution network is stressed for
capacity at low power factors.
October 7, 2024
Improving Power Factor
• The solution to improve the power factor is to add
power factor correction capacitors to the plant power
distribution system.
• They act as reactive power generators, and provide the
needed reactive power to accomplish kW of work.
• This reduces the amount of reactive power, and thus
total power, generated by the utilities.

October 7, 2024
The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor
addition:
a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the
total current in the system from the source end.
b) power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in
current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers
and lines upto the capacitors reduces giving capacity relief. A
high power factor can help in utilising the full capacity of your
electrical system.
October 7, 2024
Cost benefits of PF improvement

October 7, 2024
Cost benefits of PF improvement
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill.
b) Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network.
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance
of motors.
d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when
operating with a low power factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables,
switchgears etc for delivering load is reduced.

October 7, 2024
October 7, 2024
Automatic Power Factor Controllers
• Various types of automatic power factor controls are
available with relay / microprocessor logic.
• Two of the most common controls are:
1. Voltage Control and
2. kVAr Control

October 7, 2024
1. Voltage Control
• Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence
when the switched capacitors are applied at point
where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load
increases.
• Generally, where they are applied the voltage should
decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in
voltage should be around 4 – 5 % with increasing load

October 7, 2024
• Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used
in substation applications, when maintaining a
particular voltage is of prime importance.
• This type of control is independent of load cycle.
• During light load time and low source voltage, this
may give leading PF at the substation, which is to be
taken note of.

October 7, 2024
2. KILOVAR (kVAR) Control
• KiloVAR sensitive controls are used at locations where the voltage
level is closely regulated and not available as a control variable.
• The capacitors can be switched to respond to a decreasing power
factor as a result of change in system loading.
• This type of control can also be used to avoid penalty on low
power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system power
factor begins to lag behind the desired value.
• KiloVAR control requires two inputs - current and voltage from
the incoming feeder, which are fed to the PF correction
mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay.
October 7, 2024
Transformer

October 7, 2024
• A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and
deliver it at another voltage.
• This permits electrical energy to be generated at
relatively low voltages and transmitted at high voltages
and low currents.
• Thus reducing line losses and voltage drop.
• Transformers consist of two coils that are electrically
insulated, but magnetically linked.
• The primary coil is connected to the power source and
the secondary coil connects to the load.
October 7, 2024
• The turn’s ratio is the ratio between the number of turns
on the secondary to the turns on the primary.
• The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage
times the turn’s ratio.
• Ampere-turns are calculated by multiplying the current
in the coil times the number of turns.
• Primary ampere-turns are equal to secondary ampere-
turns.

October 7, 2024
Types of Transformers
• Transformers are classified as two categories:
1. Power transformers
2. Distribution transformers.
1. Power Transformers:
Power transformers are used in transmission
network of higher voltages, deployed for step-up and step
down transformer application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV,
66 kV, 33kV)
October 7, 2024
2. Distribution Transformers:
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage
distribution networks as a means to end user connectivity.
(11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V)

October 7, 2024
Rating of Transformer :
• Rating of the transformer is calculated based on the connected load
and applying the diversity factor on the connected load, applicable
to the particular industry and arrive at the kVA rating of the
Transformer.
• Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of overall maximum demand
of the plant to the sum of individual maximum demand of various
equipment.
• Diversity factor varies from industry to industry and depends on
various factors such as individual loads, load factor and future
expansion needs of the plant.
• Diversity factor will always be less than one.
October 7, 2024
Location of Transformer :
• Location of the transformer is very important as far as
distribution loss is concerned.
• Transformer receives HT voltage from the grid and steps
it down to the required voltage.
• Transformers should be placed close to the load centre,
considering other features like optimization needs for
centralized control, operational flexibility etc.
• This will bring down the distribution loss in cables.

October 7, 2024
Transformer Losses and Efficiency:
• The efficiency varies anywhere between 96 to 99
percent.
• The efficiency of the transformers not only depends on
the design, but also, on the effective operating load.
• Transformer losses consist of two parts:
1. No-load loss
2. Load loss

October 7, 2024
1. No-Load Loss:
• No-load loss also called core loss is the power consumed to sustain
the magnetic field in the transformer's steel core.
• Core loss occurs whenever the transformer is energized.
• Core loss does not vary with load.
• Core losses are caused by two factors: hysteresis and eddy current
losses.
• Hysteresis loss is that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field
in the core as the magnetizing AC rises and falls and reverses
direction.
• Eddy current loss is a result of induced currents circulating in the
core.
October 7, 2024
2. Load Loss:
• Load loss also called copper loss is associated with full-load
current flow in the transformer windings.
• Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary windings
of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the windings.
• Copper loss varies with the square of the load current. P =
• Therefore total losses of the transformer is given by
Total losses = No load losses +
where ‘n’ is the load factor.
n = X Full losses

October 7, 2024
System Distribution Losses:
• In an electrical system often the constant no load losses
and the variable load losses are to be assessed alongside,
over long reference duration, towards energy loss
estimation.
• Identifying and calculating the sum of the individual
contributing loss components is a challenging one,
requiring extensive experience and knowledge of all the
factors impacting the operating efficiencies of each of
these components.
October 7, 2024
In system distribution loss optimization, the various options
available include:
• Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load centers
• Re-routing and re-conductoring such feeders and lines where the
losses / voltage drops are higher.
• Power factor improvement by incorporating capacitors at load end.
• Optimum loading of transformers in the system.
• Opting for lower resistance All Aluminum Alloy Conductors
(AAAC) in place of conventional Aluminum Cored Steel Reinforced
(ACSR) lines
• Minimizing losses due to weak links in distribution network such as
jumpers, loose contacts, old brittle conductors.
October 7, 2024
 Energy Efficient Motors :
Minimizing Watts Loss in Motors:
• Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved without
compromising motor performance - at higher cost - within
the limits of existing design and manufacturing technology.
• The improvement in motor efficiency must result from
reducing the Watts losses.
• In terms of the existing state of electric motor technology, a
reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various ways.

October 7, 2024
• All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with
existing motor design and manufacturing technology.
• They would, however, require additional materials and/or the
use of higher quality materials and improved manufacturing
processes resulting in increased motor cost.

REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

October 7, 2024
October 7, 2024
Technical Aspect of Energy Efficient Motor:
• Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less
maintenance. At lower temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer;
required time between re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures
translate to long lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles
for each 10°C reduction in operating temperature.
• Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and
design for operation at 85% of the rated motor load.
• Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power
quality can affect the operation of energy-efficient motors.

October 7, 2024
• Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase
induction motors, slip is a measure of motor winding losses. The
lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy
efficient motors results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard
counterparts.
• Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for
standard motors. Facility managers should be careful when
applying efficient motors to high torque applications.

October 7, 2024
Soft Starter:
• When starting, AC Induction motor
develops more torque than is required
at full speed.
• This stress is transferred to the
mechanical transmission system
resulting in excessive wear and
premature failure of chains, belts,
gears, mechanical seals, etc.

October 7, 2024
• Rapid acceleration also has a massive impact on electricity
supply charges with high inrush currents drawing +600%
of the normal run current.
• The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the
problem. Should the motor slow down during the transition
period, the high peaks can be repeated and can even exceed
direct on line current.
• Soft Start & Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing
controlled starting and stopping with a selection of ramp
times and current limit settings to suit all applications
October 7, 2024
Advantages of Soft Start
• Less mechanical stress
• Improved power factor
• Lower maximum demand
• Less mechanical maintenance

October 7, 2024
Variable Speed Drives :
Speed Control of Induction Motors
• Induction motor is the workhorse of the industry.
• It is cheap rugged and provides high power to weight ratio.
• On account of high cost-implications and limitations of D.C. System,
induction motors are preferred for variable speed application, the speed
of which can be varied by changing the supply frequency.
• The speed can also be varied by varying the input voltage, varying the
resistance of the rotor circuit, using multi speed windings, using Kramer
drives, using mechanical means such as gears and pulleys and eddy-
current or fluid coupling, or by using rotary or static voltage and
frequency converters.
October 7, 2024
Variable Frequency Drive
• The VFD operates on a simple principle.
• The rotational speed of an AC induction motor depends on the
number of poles in that stator and the frequency of the applied AC
power.
• Although the number of poles in an induction motor cannot be
altered easily, variable speed can be achieved through a variation
in frequency.
• Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed mechanical
output with high efficiency.

October 7, 2024
• The technology of AC variable frequency drives (VFD) has
evolved into highly sophisticated digital microprocessor control,
along with high switching frequency IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bi
Polar Transistors) power devices.
• This has led to significantly advanced capabilities from the ease
of programmability to expanded diagnostics.
• The two most significant benefits from the evolution in
technology have been that of cost and reliability, in addition to the
significant reduction in physical size.

October 7, 2024
Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque
• Variable speed drives, and the loads that are applied to, can
generally be divided into two groups:
1. Constant torque
2. Variable torque.
• The energy savings potential of variable torque applications is
much greater than that of constant torque applications.
• Constant torque loads include vibrating conveyors, punch presses,
rock crushers, machine tools, and other applications where the
drive follows a constant V/Hz ratio.
• Variable torque loads include centrifugal pumps and fans, which
make up the majority of HVAC applications.
October 7, 2024
Performance Evaluation of Fans:
• Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and
industrial process requirements.
• Fans generate a pressure to move air (or gases) against a
resistance caused by ducts, dampers, or other
components in a fan system.
• The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating shaft and
transmits it to the air.

October 7, 2024
System Characteristics
• The term "system resistance" is used when referring to the static
pressure.
• The system resistance is the sum of static pressure losses in the
system.
• The system resistance is a function of the configuration of ducts,
pickups, elbows and the pressure drops across equipment for
example backfilter or cyclone.
• The system resistance varies with the square of the volume of air
flowing through the system

October 7, 2024
• For a given volume of air, the fan in a system with narrow ducts
and multiple short radius elbows is going to have to work harder
to overcome a greater system resistance than it would in a system
with larger ducts and a minimum number of long radius turns.
• Long narrow ducts with many bends and twists will require more
energy to pull the air through them.
• For a given fan speed, the fan will be able to pull less air through
this system than through a short system with no elbows.
• Thus, the system resistance increases substantially as the volume
of air flowing through the system increases; square of air flow.

October 7, 2024
• Conversely, resistance decreases as flow decreases. To determine
what volume the fan will produce, it is therefore necessary to
know the system resistance characteristics.
• Typically a system resistance curve is generated with for various
flow rates on the x-axis and the associated resistance on the y-
axis.

October 7, 2024
Fan Characteristics
• Fan characteristics can be represented in form of fan curve(s).
• The fan curve is a performance curve for the particular fan under
a specific set of conditions.
• The fan curve is a graphical representation of a number of inter-
related parameters.
• Typically a curve will be developed for a given set of conditions
usually including: fan volume, system static pressure, fan speed,
and brake horsepower required to drive the fan under the stated
conditions

October 7, 2024
• Some fan curves will also include an efficiency curve so that a
system designer will know where on that curve the fan will be
operating under the chosen conditions.

October 7, 2024
• The curve static pressure (SP) vs. flow is especially important.
• The intersection of the system curve and the static pressure curve
defines the operating point.
• When the system resistance changes, the operating point also
changes.
• Once the operating point is fixed, the power required could be
found by following a vertical line that passes through the
operating point to an intersection with the power (BHP) curve.
• A horizontal line drawn through the intersection with the power
curve will lead to the required power on the right vertical axis.
• In the depicted curves, the fan efficiency curve is also presented.
October 7, 2024
System Characteristics and Fan Curves
• In any fan system, the resistance to air flow (pressure) increases
when the flow of air is increased.
• It varies as the square of the flow.
• The pressure required by a system over a range of flows can be
determined and a "system performance curve" can be developed.

October 7, 2024
• This system curve can then be plotted on the fan curve to show
the fan's actual operating point at "A" where the two curves (N1
and SC1) intersect.
• This operating point is at air flow Q1 delivered against pressure
P1.
• A fan operates along a performance given by the manufacturer for
a particular fan speed.
• At fan speed N1, the fan will operate along the N1 performance
curve as shown in Figure.
• The fan's actual operating point on this curve will depend on the
system resistance; fan's operating point at "A" is flow (Q1)
against pressure (P1)
October 7, 2024
• Two methods can be used to reduce air flow from Q1 to Q2:

• First method:
 First Method is to restrict the air flow by partially closing a
damper in the system.
 This action causes a new system performance curve (SC2)
where the required pressure is greater for any given air flow.
 The fan will now operate at "B" to provide the reduced air flow
Q2 against higher pressure P2.

October 7, 2024
• Second method:
 Second method to reduce air flow is by reducing the speed
from N1 to N2, keeping the damper fully open.
 The fan would operate at "C" to provide the same Q2 air flow,
but at a lower pressure P3.
 Thus, reducing the fan speed is a much more efficient method
to decrease airflow since less power is required and less energy
is consumed

October 7, 2024
Fan Performance Assessment:
The fans are tested for field performance by measurement of flow,
head, temperature on the fan side and electrical motor kW input on

the motor side.

Air flow measurement

• Static pressure:
 Static pressure is the potential energy put into the system by
the fan. It is given up to friction in the ducts and at the duct
inlet as it is converted to velocity pressure. At the inlet to the
duct, the static pressure produces an area of low pressure

October 7, 2024
• Velocity pressure:
 Velocity pressure is the pressure along the line of the flow that
results from the air flowing through the duct. The velocity
pressure is used to calculate air velocity.

• Total pressure:
 Total pressure is the sum of the static and velocity pressure.
 Velocity pressure and static pressure can change as the air
flows though different size ducts, accelerating and
decelerating the velocity.
 The total pressure stays constant, changing only with friction
losses.
October 7, 2024
• Measurement by Pitot tube:

October 7, 2024
• Measurement by Pitot tube:
 Total pressure is measured using the inner tube of pitot tube
and static pressure is measured using the outer tube of pitot
tube.
 When the inner and outer tube ends are connected to a
manometer, we get the velocity pressure.
 For measuring low velocities, it is preferable to use an
inclined tube manometer instead of U tube manometer.

October 7, 2024
Electronic Ballast:
Role of Ballast
• In an electric circuit the ballast acts as a stabilizer.
• Fluorescent lamp is an electric discharge lamp.
• The two electrodes are separated inside a tube with no apparent
connection between them.
• When sufficient voltage is impressed on these electrodes,
electrons are driven from one electrode and attracted to the other.
• The current flow takes place through an atmosphere of low
pressure mercury vapour

October 7, 2024
• Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by direct
connection to the power source, they need an ancillary circuit and
device to get started and remain illuminated.
• The auxillary circuit housed in a casing is known as ballast

October 7, 2024
Conventional Vs Electronic Ballasts
• The conventional ballasts make use of the kick caused by sudden
physical disruption of current in an inductive circuit to produce the
high voltage required for starting the lamp and then rely on reactive
voltage drop in the ballast to reduce the voltage applied across the
lamp.
• On account of the mechanical switch (starter) and low resistance of
filament when cold the uncontrolled filament current, generally tend
to go beyond the limits specified by Indian standard specifications.
• With high values of current and flux densities the operational losses
and temperature rise are on the higher side in conventional choke.

October 7, 2024
The basic functions of electronic ballast are:
1. To ignite the lamp
2. To stabilize the gas discharge
3. To supply the power to the lamp

October 7, 2024
Energy Efficient Lighting Controls:
Occupancy Sensors
• Occupancy-linked control can be achieved using infra-red,
acoustic, ultrasonic or microwave sensors, which detect either
movement or noise in room spaces.
• These sensors switch lighting on when occupancy is detected,
and off again after a set time period, when no occupancy
movement detected.
• They are designed to override manual switches and to prevent
a situation where lighting is left on in unoccupied spaces.
October 7, 2024
Timed Based Control
• Timed-turnoff switches are the least expensive type of
automatic lighting control.
• In some cases, their low cost and ease of installation makes it
desirable to use them where more efficient controls would be
too expensive.

October 7, 2024
Types and Features :
• The oldest and most common type of timed-turnoff switch is
the "dial timer," a spring-wound mechanical timer that is set
by twisting the knob to the desired time.
• Typical units of this type are vulnerable to damage because
the shaft is weak and the knob is not securely attached to the
shaft.
• Some spring-wound units make an annoying ticking sound as
they operate.
• Newer types of timed-turnoff switches are completely
electronic and silent.
October 7, 2024
• Electronic switches can be made much more rugged than the
spring-wound dial timer.
• These units typically have a spring-loaded toggle switch that
turns on the circuit for a preset time interval.
• Some electronic models provide a choice of time intervals,
which you select by adjusting a knob located behind the
faceplate
• Most models allow occupants to turn off the lights manually.
Some models allow occupants to keep the lights on,
overriding the timer

October 7, 2024
• Timed-turnoff switches are available with a wide range of
time spans.
• The choice of time span is a compromise. Shorter time spans
waste less energy but increase the probability that the lights
will turn off while someone is in the space.
• Dial timers allow the occupant to set the time span, but this
is not likely to be done with a view toward optimizing
efficiency.
• For most applications, the best choice is an electronic unit
that allows the engineering staff to set a fixed time interval
behind the cover plate.
October 7, 2024
Daylight Linked Control:
• Photoelectric cells can be used either simply to switch lighting
on and off, or for dimming.
• They may be mounted either externally or internally.
• It is however important to incorporate time delays into the
control system to avoid repeated rapid switching caused, for
example, by fast moving clouds.
• By using an internally mounted photoelectric dimming control
system, it is possible to ensure that the sum of daylight & electric
lighting always reaches the design level by sensing the total light
in the controlled area and adjusting the output of the electric
October 7, 2024
lighting accordingly.
• If daylight alone is able to meet the design requirements, then the
electric lighting can be turned off.
• The energy saving potential of dimming control is greater than a
simple photoelectric switching system.
• Dimming control is also more likely to be acceptable to room
occupants

October 7, 2024
Localized Switching:
• Localized switching should be used in applications which
contain large spaces.
• Local switches give individual occupants control over their
visual environment and also facilitate energy savings.
• By using localized switching it is possible to turn off artificial
lighting in specific areas, while still operating it in other areas
where it is required, a situation which is impossible if the
lighting for an entire space is controlled from a single switch.

October 7, 2024