CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1

INTRODUCTION,REVIEW OF
BASIC CHEMISTRY AND LAB
MATHEMATICS

Shirley O.Solitario,RMT
 CLINICAL CHEMISTRY
 “clinical”- comes from the greek word
kline, meaning “bed”.
 “chemistry” –the science that deals with
the elements, their compounds and the
chemical structure and interaction of matter.
 Is a basic science that utilizes the specialty
of chemistry to study human beings in
various stages of health and disease.
 It is an applied science when analyses are
performed on body fluids or tissue
specimens to provide important information
for the diagnosis or treatment of disease.
 WHAT IS CLINICAL CHEMISTRY?
 Study of biochemical processes associated
with health and disease
 Measurement of constituents in the body

fluids or tissues to facilitate diagnosis of

disease.
 Monitor the effect of treatment and

measuring the drug levels in blood and other

body fluids.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 -Robert James Graves (1796-1853)- few and
scanty, indeed are the rays of light which
chemistry has flung on the vital mysteries”
 Johann Joseph Scherer (1814-1869)- first used the

term “clinical chemistry laboratory”( klinisch-

chemischen Laboratorium.)
 Max Josef von Pettenkofer (1818-1901)-

complained that clinicians do not use their

chemistry laboratory services except when
needed for luxurious embelishment for a clinical
lecture.”
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 FRIEDRICH WOHLER-synthesized urea during
early 1800.
 Diagnosis of DM by analysis of urine sugar

dates back to the middle ages.

 19th century

 The composition of starch and fats were

known.
 A number of proteins from the blood has

been isolated and characterized

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 Cholesterol was shown to be present in
gallstone.
 Chemical make-up of urine was elucidated.
 First clinical chemistry text was written in
1836.
 IMPROVEMENTS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
 INVENTION OF pH METER
 First device to measure acidity of citrus

fruits.
 Control of pH in enzyme assay and explore

effect of pH on the rate of reaction

 Measurement of blood pH.

• INVENTION OF COLORIMETER
 DR.LEONARD SKEGGS- developed a device

that would automatically pipette a sample,

add reagents to it, mix and incubate the
resulting solution and measure the color
CLINICAL CHEMISTRY BASICS
 Laboratory Mathematics, Calculations and
Statistical Concept
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
 SOLUTION- composed of solvent and
solute. In a solution, there is an even
distribution of molecules or ions
throughout the solvent.
 Solute – refers to the substance being

dissolved which maybe a solid, liquid or

gas.
 Solvent – refers to the substance in which

the solute is dissolved which most cases

are liquids.
1. CONCENTRATION
refers to the weight or volume
of the solute present in a
specified amount of the
solvent or a solution
THREE BASIC TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 Percent solution
 amount of solute in a solution can be measured
as a percentage of the total volume of the
solution
 percent refers to the parts of the solute per 100
parts of the solvent, represented by the percent
sign (%)
 3 EXPRESSIONS OF PERCENT SOLUTION

1. % weight per volume (w/v)- most common

2. % volume per volume (v/v)
3. % weight per weight (w/w)
 PERCENT SOLUTION
 A. weight/volume
 FORMULA:

% w/v= grams of solute/ mL of solution x

100
Where as:
grams of solute = % soln desired x total
vol.desired
100
Example:
1. What amount of NaCl is needed to make 800ml
of 0.85 % solution?
 Example:
1. What amount of NaCl is needed to make 800ml
of 0.85 % solution?
 GIVEN: TV= 800ml , % w/v= 0.85
 PROBLEM: GRAMS OF SOLUTE=?

SOLUTION:
grams of solute = % soln desired x total
vol.desired
100
Grams of solute(NaCl)= 0.85 x 800
100
680/100
= 6.8 grams
6.8 grams of NaCl is required to make 800mL of
0.85% NaCl
 PERCENT SOLUTION
 B. % volume per volume (v/v)
 FORMULA: % v/v = mL of solute x 100

 mL of solution
 Where as:

 mL of solute= % soln.desired x total vol. desired

 100
 EXAMPLE FOR V/V
 Prepare 500mL 40% alcohol from stock absolute
alcohol solution.
 Given: tv= 500mL, %= 40%

 Problem: vol. of solute=?

 Solution:

 mL of solute= % soln.desired x total vol. desired

 100
 mL of solute = 40 x 500 / 100
 = 20,000/100
 = 200 mL
 = 200mL alcohol + 300mL distilled water to

make 500 mL solution.

 PERCENT SOLUTION
% weight per weight (w/w)
 Formula:
 % w/w = grams of solute x 100
 grams of solution
 Where as:
 Grams of solute= % soln.desired x grams of total
soln.
 100
 Note: When preparing concentrated acid
solutions, always add acid to water.
SAMPLE PROBLEM FOR W/W
 Make 1800mL of a 50% weight/weight acetone
alcohol solution.
 Specific gravity acetone: 0.786
 Specific gravity alcohol: 0.810
- Since you are working with liquids, the first step is to
know how many mL of each you will need to get 50
grams of each to make a total 100 grams
- 50 = 63.61 mL of acetone required to get 50g
0.786
- 50 = 61.73 mL of alcohol required to get 50 g
0.810
 . The second step is to add the mL of acetone
and alcohol together.
 This tells you how many total Ml are required

to have 50 g of each substance

 63.61 mL of acetone
+ 61.73 mL of alcohol
125.34 mL total mL
Since the total volume needed is 1800, you
need to find how many 125.34 are in
1800mL.
This is accomplished by dividing 125.33 into
1800
1800/ 125.34 = 14.36
 The final step is to find the total volumes
of acetone and alcohol needed to make
1800mL of the 50% solution.

 63.61mL of acetone x 14.36= 913.44 total

vol.acetone
 61.73mL of alcohol x 14.36 = 886.44 total

vol .alcohol
 1799.88 mL total vol.
soln.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 Molar Solutions (MOLARITY)
 solution containing one gram molecular weight (one
mole of the solute in one liter solution) of the
substance per liter of the solution
 The number of moles expressed per 1 liter of solution.
 It is expressed as moles per liter (mol/L)
 FORMULA:
 mole = grams of solute
 molecular weight (MW)
MOLARITY(M)= grams of solute
MW x volume of solution (L)
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
(MOLARITY)
 If you wish to make 1 liter of 2M NaCl solution, how much
NaCl must be weighed?
 GMW of NaCl= 58.5 g MW Na (23) + MW Cl
(35.5)
 GMW- is obtained by adding the atomic weights

of the components elements.

 Formula:

 Grams of NaCl=M x MW x volume of solution(L)

 = 2 x 58.5 x 1
 = 117 g NaCl needed for 1L 2M Nacl
solution.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
(MOLARITY)
 Prepare 250 mL of a 4.8 M solution of HCl
 GMW OF HCL=36.5gMW H(1) +MW
Cl(35.5)
 Grams of HCl= M x MW x vol.of soln(L)
 = 4.8 x 36.5 x 0.250
 = 43.8 grams
 Dissolve 43.8 g HCl in distilled water to
make 250mL of 4.8 M soln. of HCL
 Since L is required you have to convert the
given volume which is mL into liter
 1 liter = 1000ml = 250ml = 0.250

1000ml
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
(MOLARITY)
 A solution contains 24g NaOH per liter, what is the
molarity?
 GMW= 40g MW Na(23) + MW O(16) + MW
H (1)
 M = grams of solute

 MW x volume (L)
 M = 24__

40 x 1
24/40
M = 0.6
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 4(MOLARITY)
 How many mL of phosphoric acid is needed to
prepare 1L of 2M solution of phosphoric acid?
 Note: since it is liquid, you need to account for the

specific gravity. Also since it is an acid, you need

to account for the % purity
 GMW H3 PO4= 97.9938g

 Specific gravity = 1.5 g/mL

 % purity = 85.5 %

 mL H3PO4= molarity x GMW x V (L)

 specific gravity x % purity

 = 2 x 97.9938 x 1 = 195.99
1.5 x 0.855 = 1.2825
196.99/1.2825
= 152.818 mL of acid diluted to 1000mL
 CONVERSION OF % W/V TO M
Toconvert % w/v to
Molarity (M)
M = % w/v x 10

GMW
THREE BASIC TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 Normal Solutions (NORMALITY)
 one gram equivalent weight of solute in one
liter of solution
 Gram equivalent weight is that weight in
grams of an element or compound which will
combine with or replace one gram of
hydrogen
 Gram equivalent weight of a substance is
equal to the gram molecular weight of a
substance divided by it, total positive or
negative valence
 It has often been used in acid-base
calculations.
 NORMALITY
 FORMULAS:
 Equivalent weight (EW)= molecular weight

valence
 Normality (N) = grams of solution

equivalent weight x volume (L)

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 (NORMALITY)
If a solution contains 111g CaCl2 per liter, what is
the normality?
 MW CaCl2 = MW Ca(40) + MW Cl (35.5) x 2= 71

 40 + 71 = 111g
 Valence Ca = +2 EW = 111/ 2 = 55.5 g
 N = grams of solute

 EW x vol (L)
 = 111__
 55.5 x 1
 = 2 N CaCl2
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
(NORMALITY)
 What is the normality of a 500mL solution that
contains 7g H2SO4?
 MW H2SO4= H(1) x2 + S (32) + O (16) x 4
 = 2 + 32 + 64
 MW = 98
 Valence2 H = 2x1 EW 98/2 =49g
 N= grams of solute

 EW x volume (L)
 = 7 / 49 x 0.50
 = 7/24.5

 = 0.285 N
SAMPLE PROBLEM # 3 NORMALITY
 To make 500mL of 3 N Na2SO4, how much
substance must be weighed?
 MW Na2SO4= 142g

 Na(23) x 2 +S (32) + O (16) x4

 46 +32+64 =142
 Valence 2 Na= 2 EW = 142/2 = 71
 N= grams of solute

 EW x volume (L)
 Grams of solute =N x EW X volume(L)

 = 3 x 71 x 0.500
 = 106.5 g Na2SO4 to make 500 of 3N
solution
SAMPLE PROBLEM #4 (NORMALITY)
 In order to make 2 liters of 0.3 N HCl from
concentrated HCl which has a specific gravity of 1.185
and percent purity of 36.7, what volume of
concentrated acid is required?
 GMW of HCl = 36.5 g H (1) + Cl(35.5)
 Valence of H =1 EW= 36.5/1=36.5
 N= grams of solute
 EW x volume (L)
 mL HCl= normality x EW x V (L)
 specific gravity x % purity
 = 0.3 x 36.5 x 2
 1.185 x 0.367
 = 21.9 / 0.43
 = 50.93 mL
CONVERSION OF % W/V TO
NORMALITY
 N= % w/v x10
 EW
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOLARITY AND
NORMALITY
 NORMALITY = MOLARITY x VALENCE
 MOLARITY = NORMALITY / VALENCE

 NORMALITY IS ALWAYS EQUAL TO OR

GREATER THAN MOLARITY.
 MOLARITY IS ALWAYS EQUAL TO OR
LESS THAN NORMALITY
 MOLALITY
 Amount of solute per 1kg of solvent
 It is expressed as moles per kilogram

(mol/kg) or weight/weight.
 Molecular weight (MW) is obtained by adding

the atomic weight of the given compound.

 FORMULA:

 Molality (m)= grams of solute

 MW x kilogram of solvent
SAMPLE PROBLEM (MOLALITY)
 A solution contains 15,6 g NaCl dissolved in 500g of
water. Determine the molal concentration.
 GMW of NaCl= 58.5 g Na(23) + MW Cl(35.5)

 Molality (m)= grams of solute

 MW x kilogram of solvent
 m = 15.6/ 58.5 x 0.5

 m = 15.6/29.25

 m = 0.53
 MILLIEQUIVALENTS
 The most common way of expressing
electrolytes
 A milliequivalent is the equivalent weight

expressed in milligrams.
 Typically, the laboratory is required to

convert milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) to

milliequivalent per liter (mEq/L)
 FORMULA:

 mEq/L = mg/dL x 10 x valence

 molecular weight (MW)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 FOR MEQ/L
 If a solution contains 350mg/dL Na+, how
many mEq/L of Na+ does it contains?
 MW=23

mEq/L = mg/dL x 10 x valence

 molecular weight (MW)
 = 350 x 10 x 1
 23
 = 3,500/23
 = 152.17 mEq/L
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 FOR MEQ/L
 A solution containing 12 mg/dL Ca++
 Contains how many mEq/L calcium?

 MW= 40

mEq/L = mg/dL x 10 x valence

 molecular weight (MW)
 = 12 x 10 x 2
 40
 = 240 / 40
 = 6 mEq/L Ca++
 MILLIMOLES
 Millimoles is the molecular weight expressed in
milligrams. (mmol/L)
 Formula:
 mmol/L = mg/dL x 10
 MW
 Example Problem:
 1. Convert a 3mg/dL magnesium to mmol/L
 MW= 24.31
 mmol/L = 3 x10/ 24.31= 1.23 mmol/L
 2. Convert 8.2 mg/dL calcium to mmol/L.
 MW= 40
 mmol/L = 8.2 x 10 /40 = 2.05mmol/L
DILUTION
 In the molar, normal, or percentage
solutions, the amount of solute contained in
a given volume of solution is equal to the
product of volume times the concentration
 Whenever the solution is diluted, the volume

is increased and its concentration decreased,

but the total amount of solute remains
unchanged.
 Ratio of the volume of substance to be

diluted to the final volume

 DILUTION = volume of solute

 volume of solution
 DILUTION

 Amount of solute (A) = Volume A x conc,A

 Amount of solute (B) = Volume B x conc.B

 Hence:
 Volume A x conc.A = Volume B x conc.B
 N1 x V1 = N2 x V2
 Sample poblem: Prepare 1Liter of 0.1 N HCl(N2) from
12.1N concentrated HCl (N1) calculate the amount (in
mL) of conc.HCl(V1) to dilute with distilled water (V2)
 N1 V1 = N2 V2
 12.1 x V1 = 0.1 x 1000
 x = 100/12.1 = 8.26 mL
 V1 (x) = 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl to be diluted to
1 liter distilled water.
 RATIO
 VOLUME OF SOLUTE PER VOLUME OF
SOLVENT

 RATIO = volume of solute

 volume of solvent
 SAMPLE DILUTION
 Calculate the dilution of 0.1 mL serum in
0.9 mL of water
 volume of serum:total volume (serum+water)

 = 0.1 : 10 (0.1 + 0.9)

 dilution is 1:10

 Calculate the dilution of blood when using 50uL

(0.05mL) and 950 uL (0.95mL) of diluting fluid.

 Total volume of body fluid and diluting fluid

 50 + 950 = 1000 uL

 Therefore , dilution of blood: 1000/50 = 20

 The dilution is 1:20

 SAMPLE DILUTION PROBLEM
 Calculate the dilution of urine using 0.5 mL of
urine and 8.5 mL of isotonic saline.
 Total volume of body fluid and diluting fluid
 0.5 + 8.5 = 9mL
 Therefore, dilution of urine : 9.0 / 0.5 = 18
 The dilution is 1 :18
 SERIAL DILUTION:
 Multiple progressive dilutions ranging from more
concentrated solutions to less concentrated
solutions.
 Example : A serum was diluted 1:10 then 1:10,
then 1:2.What is the final dilution?
 1 x 1 x 1 = 1 final dilution
 10 10 2 200
 MOST COMMON REASONS FOR
DILUTIONS
 In the preparation of a working solution from a
stock solution. It is very economical for the
laboratory to purchase concentrated solution
and dilute as necessary to perform the test.
The use of concentrated stock solution, where
possible, saces time, money and storage space.
 If the concentration of the material or solution

is too great to be accurately detremined.

 In the removal of the undesirable

substances(e,g,proteins), solutions are added

to precipitate these substances and dilution has
taken place.
GRADES OF CHEMICAL
REAGENT GRADE OR ANALYTIC
REAGENT (AR) GRADE
 These chemicals are of a high degree of purity and
are used often in the preparation of reagents in the
clinical laboratory for many reagent grade or AR
chemicals; and those that meet their standards are
designed by the letter ACS (American Chemical
Society)
 Important for qualitative and quantitative analyses;
essential for accuracy
 Labels on these reagents either state the actual
impurities for each chemical lot or list the maximum
allowable impurities (percentage of impurities)
 Uses: trace metal analysis and preparation of
standard solutions.
 CHEMICALLY PURE (CP) GRADE
 These chemicals are sufficiently pure to be
used in many analyses in the clinical
laboratory.
 However, the designation does not reveal the

limits of impurities that are tolerated and so,

they many not be acceptable for research and
various clinical laboratory technique unless
they have been specifically analyzed for the
desired procedure.
 It may be necessary to use this grade when

higher purity biochemicals are not available.

 UNITED STATES PHARMACOPEIA
(USP) AND NATIONAL
FORMULARY (NF) GRADE
 These reagents meet the

specifications stated in USP and

NF.
 They are generally less pure than

CP grade, as the tolerance is

specified such as they are not
injurious to health rather than
chemically pure.
PURIFIED, PRACTICAL OF PURE
GRADE
 These chemicals may be used as
starting materials for synthesis of
other chemicals of greater purity
but generally should not be used
in the clinical laboratory.
TECHNICAL OR COMMERCIAL
GRADE
 These chemicals are used only for
industrial purposes and are
generally not used in the
preparation of reagents for the
clinical laboratory.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, COLLEGE
OF AMERICAN PATHOLOGISTS AND THE
NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR CLINICAL
LABORATORY STANDARDS (NCCLS)

 These agencies or bureaus all supply certified

clinical laboratory standards.
 The highest grade or purest chemicals are

available from the National Bureau of

Standards.
 However, very few such compounds are

available to the clinical laboratory and they

are known as standards, clinical type.
THREE GRADES OF REAGENT WATER
 Water should be classified in terms of
type instead of the method of
preparation, according to Clinical and
Laboratory Standards Institute(CLSI)
 Filtration is the first step before the

three processes are performed in

reagent grade water preparation.
 Distillation, ion exchange and reverse

osmosis- the processes involved in the

preparation of reagent grade water.
 TYPE 1 REAGENT WATER
 Used for test methods requiring minimum
interference.
 For procedures that require maximum water
impurity for accuracy and precision.
 Should be used immediately (storage is
discouraged) after production.
 For ultramicrochemical analyses, measurements
of nanogram or subnanogram concentrations,
tissue or cell methods(microscopy) and
preparation of standard solutions.
 Uses: flame photometry, AAS, blood gases and
pH enzyme studies. Electrolyte testing, HPLC,
trace metal and iron studies.
 TYPE II REAGENT WATER
 Forhematology,
microbiology ,immunology and
chemistry.
 Acceptable for preparation of

reagents and quality control

materials.
 TYPE III REAGENT WATER

 Urinalysis, parasitology and

histology
 For washing glasswares.
 DISTILLED WATER- is the condesate
collected from steam and created when
water is boiled and vaporized.
 Ithas been purified to remove almost all
organic materials.
 DEIONIZED WATER- It is prepared by
using deionizer (anion or cation) and it is
free from minerals salts; removed by ion
exchange processes.
 Ithas some or all ions removed but organic
materials may be still present. Is purified
from previously treated water such as
prefiltered or distilled water.
 NOTES TO REMEMBER
 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) requires
manufacturers to clearly indicate the lot number, physical or
bilogical health hazard of the chemical reagents and
precautions for safe use and storage.
 The College of American Pathologists (CAP) recommends that
a laboratory document culture growth, pH and specific water
resistance on reagent grade water.
 Test for water purity- microbiological content, pH, resistivity,
chemical oxygen demand(COD), ammonia, ions and metals.
 Water may bae distilled more than once and each distillation
cycle removes more impurities.
 Water can also be purified by ultrafiltration, UV light,
sterilization or ozone treatment.
 Detergent-contaminated water will have an alkaline Ph.
 Hard water contains calcium, iron and other dissolved
elements.
 NCCLS is now Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute.
MEASUREMENT
OF
VOLUME
GLASSWA
RES
GLASSWARES Plasticwares
 Breakable Highly shock proof;
shatterproof
 Reusable  Disposable
 Ideal for acidic
solutions  Ideal for alkaline

 High thermal & solutions Relatively

corrosion
resistance
 Good optical inert
properties
 Low
cost
 Flexible

 For cryogenic
experiments
 GLASSWARES
 Clinical laboratory glasswares can
be divided into 5 general types.
1.High thermal resistant glass
2.High silica glass
3.Glass with high resistance to
alkali
4.Standard flint glass
5.Low actinic glass
 1. HIGH THERMAL RESISTANT
GLASS
 Borosilicate glassware is essentially a sodium-
aluminum borosilicate with an excess of silica
characterized by high degrees of thermal
resistance. Commercial brands are known as
kimax and Pyrex. It has a low alkali content and
is free from magnesia- lime- zinc group of
elements. Concentrated alkaline solutions should
not be stored in this glass which will etch or
dissolve the glass and destroy the calibration.
Borosilicate glassware with heavy walls should
not be heated with a direct flame or hot plate nor
should one heat any glass above its strain point,
which for Pyrex is 515 C. if this occurs and the
glass is cooled too quickly.
HIGH THERMAL RESISTANT
GLASS
 Strainswill develop and the glass cracks
easily when heated again. Vycor brand is
recommended for use in application
involving high temperature, drastic heat
shock, and extreme chemical treatment
with acids and dilute alkalies. Vycor ware
is used primarily in ashing and ignition
techniques. It can be heated to 900C and
can withstand downshocks from 900 C to
ice water.
 2. HIGH SILICA GLASS (OVER
96%)
 This is comparable to fused quarts in its thermal
endurance chemical stability and electrical
characteristics. It is radiation resistant and has
good optical qualities and temperature capabilities.
It is used for precision analytical work and can also
be used for optical reflectors and mirrors.
 Corex brand glassware is a special alumina-silicate

glass strengthtened chemically rather than

thermally which is at least 6 times stronger than
borosilicate glass. It is also better to clouding and
scratching.
 Made by removing all elements from borosilicate
3. GLASS WITH HIGH RESISTANCE TO
ALKALI

 This is used to handle strongly

alkaline solutions. However, it has
only about half the thermal block or
rather shock resistance of Pyrex
glassware and therefore must be
heated and cooled more carefully.
 Often referred to as “soft glass as its

thermal resistance is much less than

of borosilicate glass.
 4. STANDARD FLINT
GLASS
 It is a glass of high thermal with a red color added
as an integral part of the glass. The density of
the red color is adjusted to permit adequate
visibility of the contents, yet give maximum
protection tom light- sensitive materials that
causes deterioration. It is used for bilirubin,
carotene and Vitamin A analysis- photosensitive.
 Used for the manufacture of weighing bottles

because it develops less static surface changes.

 Composed of a mixture of the oxides of silicon,

calcium and sodium.

 5. LOW ACTINIC GLASS
 Thisis soda-lime glass composed of a
mixture of the oxides of silicon, calcium
and sodium. It is lowest in cost and is
readily fabricated in a wide variety of
shapes. It has poor resistance to high
temperature and sudden changes of
temperature and its resistance to
attack by chemicals is only fair. Soda
lime pipets may release alkaline into
the pipetted liquid and cause
considerable errors in certain critical
assay procedure.
 PLASTICWARES
1. Polyolefins (polyethylenes, polypropylenes)
Unique group of resins with relatively inert chemical
properties

Unaffected by acids (however, conc. sulfuric acid slowly attacks

polyethylene at RT), alkalies, salt solutions and most aqueous
solutions

Aromatic, aliphatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons cause moderate

swelling at RT

Organic acids, essential oils and halogens slowly penetrate these

plastics
Polyolefins (polyethylenes, polypropylenes)

STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS ATTACK THIS GROUP

AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ONLY

Polypropylene is more
expensive than polyethylene therefore
the latter is used in
most disposable plastic wares

Polypropylene is sterilizable
however it absorbs pigment and tends to
become discolored
 2.
PLASTICWARES
POLYCARBONATE
RESIN
 twice as strong as polypropylene (from –100oC to
+160oC)

 Chemical resistance is not as wide as the

polyolefins

 Unsuitable for use with bases as amines,

ammonia and alkalies as well as oxidizing agents

 Glass-clear and shatterproof

 Ideal for centrifuge

tubes and
graduated cylinders
3.
TYGON

 Nontoxic, clear plastic of modified PVC

(polyvinylchloride)

 Used extensively for the manufacture of

ACA tubings

 Flexible and used to handle most

chemicals

 Can be steam-autoclaved or chemically

sterilized

 Tubing is soft and flexible and quickly slips over

tubulatures but gripping tightly on glass or
metals
4. TEFLON
FLUOROCARBON
RESINS

 Almost chemically inert with high corrosion

resistance at extreme temperatures

 For cryogenic experiments and work at

high temperatures over extended
periods (-270oC to
+255oC)
 Pure translucent white and inert

 Easy to clean and fast drying but it can be

scratched and misshaped
 MEASURING VESSELS
 1. GRADUATED CYLINDER- commonly
called graduates and are used where less
accurate measurements are required.
 2. BURETS- are long cylindrical graduated

pipettes with stopcock(glass for acid and

rubber for alkali). This is generally used for
titration purposes only.
 3. VOLUMETRIC FLASKS- are frequently

used for the preparation of standard

solutions (solution of known concentration)
and for measuring liquid volume
accurately.
 MEASURING VESSELS
 4. PIPETS- there are many kinds of pipets
available for the use in clinical chemistry
laboratory each intended to serve specific
function.
 CLASSIFICATION OF PIPETS:

 A. According to manner of

calibration(design)
⚫ 1. To deliver (TD)- this type of calibration is
made by weighing the necessary volume of
water which when allowed to flow by gravity
will deliver the exact volume. The small
amount left in the tip should not be blow out.
This is constant and has been compensated
for during the calibration of the pipet. The
rate at which the fluid flows down is
 Calibrationof “to deliver” pipets is usually
performed by measuring the amount
of water delivered by the pipet. This
measurement maybe made by
weighing the water delivered and
calculating the volume from its density
(V-W/D).
 Water is commonly used as the

calibrating medium because it is

readily available and it is similar
in viscosity and speed of drainage to
the dilute solution ordinarily employed
in clinical chemistry.
 TO CONTAIN (TC)
PIPETS

 Are calibrated by introducing exact

volume or weight of mercury(Hg), a
non-wetting liquid, equal to volume
desired. The pipet contains the
necessary volume, howerer, it does not
deliver the exact volume due to the
tendency of the fluids cling to glass
surfaces.
 The exact volume can be delivered by

repeated filling, then emptying with the

diluent.
 ACCORDING TO DISPENSING
1. TO BLOW-OUT PIPETTE-
 -same as TD pipette but drops remaining
at tip after delivery to blown out to
receiving vessel.
 - an etched ring/ frosted edge is seen

near the mouthpiece.

 self pipette

 -the user allows the contents of the

 Pipette to drain by gravity

 TYPE OF PIPETTE ACCORDING TO
USE
 Volumetric or transfer pipet
 Ostwald-folin

 Graduated or measuring

pipette
 Serologic pipettes

 Mohr pipettes

 Micropipettes

 Pasteur pipette

 Automatic Pipettes
 GLASSWARES

Beakers
Graduated measuring

cylinders
Volumetric flasks
 EQUIPMENTS USED
FOR MEASURING
MASS

Analytical

balance
Centrifuge
Upper meniscus

Lower meniscus